YK     DISCUSSION 

OF 

COMPOSITION 

AS  APPLIED  TO  ART 


Van  Pelt 


LIBRARY  OF 

ARCHITECTURE  AND 

ALLIED  ARTS 


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A  DISCUSSION  OF  COMPOSITION. 


'S^<^- 


A  DISCUSSION  OF  COMPOSITION 


ESPECIALLY  AS  APPLIED  TO  ARCHITECTURE. 


JOHN  VREDENBURGH  VAN  PELT, 

Architecte  diplome  par  le  Gouvernement  Franjais.     Professor  in 

charge  in  the  college  of  architecture, 

Cornell  University. 


Illustrated  by  the  Author. 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY, 

LONDON :  MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Ltd. 

1902 


COPYEIGHT,  1902, 

By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


PRESS  OF 

THE  NEW  ERA  PRINTING  OOMPANY; 

LANCASTER,   PA. 


1/3 

PREFACE. 


Persons  of  various  interests  have  asked  me  to 
recommend  a  work  on  Architecture  as  an  Art. 
There  was  nothing  that  exactly  met  their  require- 
ments, and  this  suggested  the  idea  of  writing  some- 
thing, myself.  Although  some  of  these  pages  are 
primarily  for  students  of  architecture,  I  hope  the 
general  public  may  find  matter  of  interest  in  the 
book.  Its  first  concrete  form  was  a  course  of  lec- 
tures I  delivered  at  Cornell  University,  between  the 
years  1897  and  1900. 

The  present  Discussion  of  Composition  is  divided 
into  six  parts.  The  first  treats  the  general  laws  of 
character  in  art;  the  second,  general  technical  laws; 
the  last  four  have  to  do  with  applications,  three  and 
five  being,  respectively,  theoretical  discussions  of 
decoration  and  plan,  four  and  six  containing  practical 
suggestions  in  the  same  subjects. 

I  cannot  claim  that  much  of  this  is  my  own  con- 
ception, for  Composition  is  the  practice  of  Art,  and 
Art  is  as  old  as  Humanity.  Where  the  source  of 
following  pages  is  itself  a  written  page  I  have  re- 
ferred the  reader  to  the  earlier  writer  (the  latter 
may,  in  turn,  direct  him  to  a  yet  earlier  origin). 
Some  of  these  are  Ruskin,  Tolstoi,  G.  Baldwin  Brown, 
Viollet  le  Due,  Mayeux,  Miintz,  Magne,  Louis  F.  Day 
and  Helmholtz.    Where  the  origin  lies  in  the  direct 


VI  PKEFACE. 

channel  of  student  to  instructor  reference  lias  been 
less  easy.  A  great  deal  of  part  VI.  of  this  volume 
is  due  to  the  teachings  of  M.  J.  Guadet,  Professor  of 
the  Theory  of  Architecture  at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux 
Arts,  Paris.  To  his  name  I  would  add,  in  paying 
homage,  those  of  my  chefs,  d 'Atelier,  MM.  A.  Thierry 
and  Henri  Deglane,  sources  of  a  more  personal  in- 
spiration. It  was  M.  Thierry  who  made  me  realize 
the  significance  of  a  plan ;  M.  Deglane  taught  me  the 
meaning  of  the  word  ' '  Composition.  "In  particular, 
I  desire  to  express  my  indebtedness  to  M.  Deglane. 
The  illustrations  in  text,  are  necessarily  my  own 
work:  figure  33,  an  exception,  was  drawn  from  pen- 
cil sketches  of  mine,  by  M.  Kapin.  To  MM.  Pas- 
cal, Deglane,  Tournaire,  Chaussemiche,  Bigot  and 
Duquesne  I  am  indebted  for  their  courtesy  in  allow- 
ing me  to  reproduce  the  ' '  Grand  Prix ' '  plans. 

John  V.  Van  Pelt. 

ViLLiNO  San  Marino,  Fiesole,  Florence, 
June  3,  1901. 


CONTENTS. 


PAKT  I.  Pages. 

Chapter  I.    Introduction 1-    6 

Chapter   II 7-39 

Sincerity;  Truth;  Character;  Frankness; 
Decisiveness;  Simplicity;  Carefulness; 
Thoughtfulness. 

PAET  n. 

Chapter  I.    Principles  of  Composition 40-  69 

Technical  Laws;  Balance;  Contrast;  Unity  of 

Character,  Style,  Color,  Scale. 
Chapter  II.    Usual    Arrangements     of    Pictorial 

Compositions   70-  84 

PAKT  m. 

Chapter  I.    Decorative  Application  of  the  Laws  of 

Composition    85-119 

Yorm.',  Decoration  (continuity  of  motives;  hack- 
grounds)  ;  Application  of  Decoration  to 
Form. 

Chapter  II.     Optical  Effects 120-153 

Chapter  III.     Style    154-157 

PAET  IV. 

Chapter  I.    Practical      Suggestions     in     Design 

Applied  to  Decorative  Work 158-187 

Stone;  Wood;  Iron;  Bronze;  Tin;  Pewter; 
Copper;  Brass;  Lead;  Zinc;  Stucco;  Papier- 
mache;  Brick;  Terracotta;  Mosaic;  Cloi- 
sonne; Inlaying;  Glass;  Stained  Glass; 
Mural  Painting;  Pen  and  Ink;  Posters; 
Wall  Paper;  Tapestry;  Carpets. 

PART  V. 

Chapter  I.     Composition  in  Plan 188-210 

Chapter  II.    Indication    211-227 

vii 


VUl  CONTENTS. 

PAKT  VI. 

Chapter  I.  Practical  Suggestions  in  Planning..  .228-270 
Houses;  Stables;  Community  Buildings;  Hos- 
pitals; Schools;  Universities  (seating,  acous- 
tics, ventilation,  heating);  Museums; 
Theatres ;  Opera  Houses ;  Government  Build- 
ings; Commercial  Buildings;  Ecclesiastical 
Buildings. 

INDEX  OF  PROPER  NAMES 271-272 

INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS 273-275 


A  Discussion  of  Composition. 


PART  I. 


CHAPTER   I. 

An  analysis  of  composition  must  needs  be  nega- 
tive rather  than  positive.  This  results  from  the 
fact  that  while  a  production  is  not  necessarily  good 
because  it  complies  with  the  laws  of  composition, 
it  is  surely  faulty  if  it  contradicts  them.  The  fol- 
lowing discussion  will  therefore  be  more  filled  with 
the  cry  ''do  not,"  than  with  that  of  ''do";  but  in 
spite  of  this,  the  reader  must  not  think  the  writer 
a  pessimist. 

The  term  "composition,"  when  taken  apart  from 
the  phrase  "laws  of  composition,"  may  mean  some- 
thing more  than  a  mere  enchaining  of  elements.  In 
our  work  we  should  strive  for  an  artistic  composi- 
tion, and  this  interpretation  I  shall  usually  wish 
understood.  Therefore,  notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  aestheticians  of  two  centuries  have  split  hairs 
on  the  subject,  it  would  be  well  to  agree  on  just 
what  we  mean  by  an  artistic  composition  or  work  of 
art. 

A  work  of  art!  I  wish  to  use  the  term  in  its 
broadest  sense,  viz:  It  is  that  which,  having  been 

2  1 


2  A  DISCUSSION   OP   COMPOSITION. 

intentionally  created,  is  capable  of  producing  the 
sentiment  or  impression  aimed  at  by  the  artist,  and 
in  all  persons  able  to  respond  to  such  sentiments  or 
impressions.  Thus,  that  which  is  intended  to  be 
beautiful  should  seem  beautiful  to  the  observer  or 
hearer.  There  are  works  designed  to  produce  cer- 
tain impressions  which  really  produce  quite  opposite 
ones.     These  are  failures. 

The  foregoing  general  definition  of  a  work  of  art 
admits,  in  its  very  broadness,  many  different  kinds 
or  grades  of  such  works.  The  small  boy  who  invents 
a  clever  lie  and,  deceiving  his  parents,  escapes  a 
whipping,  has  produced  a  work  of  art.  Yet  no  one 
would  applaud  such  a  production.  Some  paintings, 
their  subject  being  essentially  sensual,  evoke  only  a 
feeling  of  pleasure  in  their  color  or  line.  Others 
stir  our  better  emotions.  Also,  some  compositions 
are  interesting  because  they  remind  us  of  peculiar 
previously  experienced  sensations,  but  are  therefore 
comprehensible  only  to  those  who  have  known  like 
experiences;  while  others  echoing  the  deep  chords 
which  vibrate  through  all  humanity,  are  trumpet- 
calls  to  the  peoples  of  the  world. 

What  then  are  the  higher  and  better  kinds  of  art? 
Necessarily,  of  those  which  awaken  our  higher, 
rather  than  our  lower  and  more  sensual  emotions  and 
feelings.  But  the  exercise  and  gratification  of  all 
our  senses  and  emotions,  of  our  complete  intelligence 
is  good  (I  believe  no  one  will  dispute  so  patent  a 
truism  if  he  realizes  the  importance  of  the  limita- 
tions which  I  put  upon  the  statement),  provided  this 


^ 


INTBODUCTION.  6 

exercise  and  gratification  is  the  result  of  a  legitimate 
cause  and  has  legitimate  results.  As  Jean  Jacques 
Rousseau  has  sa'id,  ' '  Our  passions  are  all  good  if  we 
remain  their  master,  all  bad  if  we  become  subject  to 
them."  Therefore  the  greater  the  number  of  the 
complex  factors  which  go  to  make  up  the  nature  of 
man,  and  it  will  be  the  better  nature  provided  it  is 
properly  controlled  in  all  its  parts,  the  greater  the 
number  appealed  to  and  touched,  the  broader  must 
be  the  character  of  the  work  of  art  which  touches 
them. 

For  example,  a  painting  may  tell  a  story  and  so, 
as  already  suggested,  appeal  to  the  literary,  mental 
sense  of  the  observer;  or  it  may  present  charm 
of  color  and  of  form,  and  so  awaken  the  aBsthetic 
sense  and  delight  the  eye;  again,  it  may  strike  a 
note  which  brings  to  the  observer  a  new  realization 
of  the  grandeur  of  nature,  or  the  nobler  qualities  of 
man.  Some  compositions  aim  at  and  attain  only 
one  of  these  ends;  others,  greater  in  conception,  are 
more  wide  reaching.  Cei*tain  nude  studies  may  be 
agreeable  to  the  eye,  but  can  go  no  farther.  Jean 
Paul  Laurens '  fresco  of  St.  Genevieve  in  the  Pantheon 
at  Paris  tells  a  story  and  is  certainly  not  beautiful. 
On  the  other  hand  turning  to  Eaffaelle's  ''Ma- 
donna of  the  Chair"  we  find,  combined  in  one  small 
and  simply  painted  canvas,  beauty,  a  story  and  a 
personification  of  motherhood.  Thus  the  better 
works  have  many  sides,  appealing  to  corresponding 
sides  in  the  nature  of  man.  The  manner  in  which 
these  appeals  are  made  is  also  varied. 


4  A   DISCUSSION   OF   COMPOSITION. 

It  is  probable  that  nearly  all  elements  which  we 
find  beautiful  (pleasing  to  a  sense)  are  only  so  after 
our  taste  has  been  accustomed,  educated  to  the  par- 
ticular sensation.  We  like  olives  or  tomatoes  only 
after  repeated  trials.  The  first  time  a  baby  is  given 
any  other  food  than  milk,  it  spits  out  the  distasteful 
substance.  Some  tastes  however  may  be  called 
natural— they  are  perhaps  the  result  of  an  unsullied 
environment,  and  are  for  our  well-being,  the  fostering 
of  life:  some  may  be  called  unnatural— they  are  like 
those  of  opium,  abortive,  and  destructive  of  life.* 
(It  is  not  necessary  to  enter  here  into  the  question 
of  tastes  which  have  been  overcultivated.)  It  is 
usually  true  that  the  more  healthful  tastes  are  those 
which  nature  places  before  us:  it  therefore  results 
that  that  kind  of  pleasant  sensation  which  is  akin  to 
the  usual  sensations  she  furnishes  is  liable  to  be  the 
better.  I  believe  we  may  train  ourselves  into  an 
admiration  of  the  most  peculiar  combinations  of 
color,  but  that  we  should  rather  educate  our  taste  to 
delight,  to  the  fullest  extent,  in  those  subtilties  which 
nature  shows  us  continually  in  her  harmoniously 
toned  out-of-doors. 

It  is  probable  too,  that  the  interesting  and  the 
moving  are  interesting  or  moving  because  we  have 
previously  experienced  similar  sensations.  This  is 
perhaps  more  definitely  so  in  the  former  than  in  the 
latter,  because  into  the  latter  enters  in  greater  degree, 


*  For  a  psychological  discussion  of  this  see  Alfr.  Lehman's 
"Die  Hauptgesetze  des  Menschlichen  gefuhlslebens,"  Leipsig,  Reis- 
land,  1892,  pp.  294,  etc.,  195,  204, 


INTRODUCTION.  0 

an  unknown  quantity,  instinct.  It  happens,  here  as 
in  the  case  of  appeals  to  the  senses  only,  that  certain 
topics  of  interest,  certain  moving  episodes,  hold  their 
power  from  broad,  underlying,  integral  factors,  in 
man's  life  and  nature;  others  are  the  result  of 
artificial,  unnecessary,  and  at  times,  undesirable 
conditions.  And  once  more,  what  is  natural  is 
necessary  and  good;  that  which  is  unnatural  is  un- 
necessary and  often  bad.  Hence  it  is  better  for  a 
work  of  art  to  touch  the  beholder  by  recalling  an 
episode,  by  reechoing  an  emotion,  of  the  more 
natural,  i.  e.,  the  higher  kind.  (It  may  be  objected 
that  altruism  is  not  natural,  but  cultivated.  That 
is  not  a  question  for  us ;  as  our  present  interpretation 
of  "natural"  is:  "That  which  nature  requires  for 
the  furtherance  of  her  schemes  for  the  progress  of 
mankind";  therefore,  that  which  is  altruistic  and 
ethical. ) 

These  higher  works,  through  the  very  conditions 
which  govern  their  being,  will  be  those  which  speak 
to  men  of  diif  erent  classes  and  countries,  not  because 
of  the  class  or  country,  not  because  they  are  princes  or 
paupers,  classicists  or  decadents,  Latin,  German  or 
Anglo-Saxon;  but  because  they  are  men.  Instead 
of  being  approved  by  the  initiated  few  and  destined 
to  die  when  the  few  are  dead,  they  will,  in  time  (a 
conventional  symbol  is  more  quickly  recognized  by 
the  conventional  than  is  the  truth  of  nature),  be 
acclaimed  by  the  many,  and  shall  live  as  the  prophets 
of  nature,  so  long  as  she  herself  lives. 

A  great  work  of  art  then,  must  not  only  be  able 


b  A  DISCUSSION   OP   COMPOSITION. 

to  influence  a  man  through  various  channels;  but 
must  also  be  conceived  so  that  it  may  influence  dif- 
ferent men.  It  must  be  all  things  to  all  men,  as  far 
as  each  individual  is  capable  of  response.  We  shall 
refer  to  this  again  when  speaking  of  '' Simplicity" 
in  art. 

It  is  natural  that  the  man  of  the  world  who  has 
passed  his  life  in  the  midst  of  what  is  called  cul- 
tured society  (in  a  great  measure  a  training  school 
for  the  senses)  should  be  the  best  judge  of  the  beauti- 
ful in  art,  that  the  scholar  should  be  the  one  to  seek 
out  the  literary  interest,  the  story  of  a  composition; 
and  that  the  man  who  has  led  a  simple  life,  in  touch 
with  nature,  should  best  recognize  the  genius,  the  soul 
in  the  artist's  creation. 

This  is  also  true  of  the  artist  himself.  What  he 
lives,  he  will  express.  And  to  be  a  truly  great  artist 
one  must  aim  at  perfect  technique  and  scholarliness ; 
but  keep  in  mind  that  these  can  never  replace  more 
simple,  yet  grander  qualities  that  are  the  human,  or 
rather,  the  (jj^ne  elements  in  any  branch  of  art. 


CHAPTER   n. 

Inasmuch  as  the  expressions  of  the  artist  are  the 
outcome  of  the  nature  and  life  of  the  man,  in  order 
to  have  a  certain  guide  in  choosing  the  best  we  must 
first  investigate  the  great  laws  governing  the  char- 
acter of  art;  laws,  ''which"  as  Ruskin  puts  it,* 
''based  upon  man's  nature,  not  upon  his  knowledge, 
may  possess  so  far  the  unchangeableness  of  the  one, 
as  that  neither  the  increase  nor  imperfection  of  the 
other  may  be  able  to  assault  or  invalidate  them." 
Describing  these  laws,  the  same  author  says  in  the 
following  paragraph:  "But  more  than  this,  exactly 
as  we  reduce  to  greater  simplicity  and  surety  any  one 
group  of  these  practical  laws,  we  shall  find  them 
passing  the  mere  condition  of  connection  or  analogy, 
and  becoming  the  actual  expression  of  some  ultimate 
nerve  or  fiber  of  the  mighty  laws  which  govern  the 
moral  world.  However  mean  or  inconsiderable  the 
act,  there  is  something  in  the  well  doing  of  it  which 
has  fellowship  with  the  noblest  forms  of  manly 
virtue;  and  the  truth,  decision,  and  temperance, 
which  we  reverently  regard  as  honorable  conditions 
of  the  spiritual  being  have  a  representative  or  deriv- 
ative influence  over  the  works  of  the  hand,  the  move- 
ments of  the  frame,  and  the  action  of  the  intellect." 

Let  us  try  to  deduce  and  eliminate  in  the  manner 
suggested,  laws  which  govern  art  in  its  highest  ex- 


Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture.' 

7 


->< 


8  A   DISCUSSION   OF   COMPOSITION. 

pression;  for  wliile  the  greater  part  of  the  present 
volume  must  be  taken  up  with  technicalities,  some- 
thing should  he  said  with  regard  to  the  character  of 
art. 

Foremost  among  the  writers  on  this  subject  are 
two  (one  of  them  I  have  just  quoted)  whom  I  would 
urge  every  student  to  read.  Tolstoi  and  Ruskin, 
though  both  noted  for  their  erratic  views  and  im- 
possible to  agree  with  in  all  of  their  technical  de- 
ductions and  applications,  are  still  surely  filled  with 
the  spirit  and  strike  the  keynote  of  that  for  which 
they  plead  so  eloquently. 

SiNCEEITY  AND   TrUTH 

are  the  first  great  needs,  or  laws  of  art. 

It  is  the  revival  of  an  old  tale,  this  telling  our 
artists  to  be  truthful  in  their  work ;  or  rather,  telling 
would-be  artists  to  be  truthful.  Yet  in  spite  of  the 
different  movements  set  on  foot,  and  the  intensity 
with  which  they  have  been  pushed— perhaps  because 
of  this  very  intensity— we  see  imitations  daily  taking 
form  around  us.  In  our  buildings,  this  is  especially 
true;  remembering  that  such  effigies  of  architecture 
are  signs  of  decadence,  we  may  well  feel  uneasy. 

If  one  of  the  geniuses  of  the  twelfth  century, 
one  of  those  some  of  us  are  so  ready  to  copy,  had 
had  the  materials  and  methods  of  construction  that 
we  are  granted,  he  would  surely  not  have  been  at 
pains  to  hide  or  dress  them  up,  merely  that  the  re- 
sult might  seem  like  an  admired,  but  constructionally 
inferior,  preceding  style.    It  is  hard  to  imagine  a 


o^ 


SINGEEITY   AND   TKUTH.  » 

Gothic  architect  building  his  pointed  arch  and  filling 
it  in  with  rubble  and  cement,  in  order  to  simulate 
the  square  heavy  lintel  of  an  Egyptian  doorway; 
yet  one  has  no  difficulty  in  calling  to  mind  examples 
of  skeleton  steel  or  wood  construction,  covered  with 
terra  cotta  or  what-not,  to  masquerade  as  ogives  or 
stone  vaults. 

Ruskin  names  three  kinds  of  deceit  in  architec- 
ture :* 

1.  The  suggestion  of  a  mode  of  structure  or  sup- 
port other  than  the  true  one. 

2.  The  painting  of  surfaces  to  represent  some 
other  material  than  the  real  one. 

3.  The  use  of  cast  or  machine-made  ornaments  of 
any  kind. 

The  trickery  of  the  first  of  these  is  usually  quite 
apparent;  for,  either  the  imitation  is  badly  done,  or 
the  designer  is  tempted  to  take  advantage  of  pos- 
sibilities, oifered  by  the  concealed  construction,  in 
a  way  that  would  be  impossible  with  the  real  rua- 
terial.  I  have  in  mind  a  certain  building  whose  long 
lintel,  actually  constructed  of  iron  or  steel,  covered 
with  terra  cotta  to  imitate  stone,  would,  if  truthfully 
constructed,  have  forced  the  architect  to  recognize  an 
ignorant  and  faulty  intercolumniation  by  refusing 
to  remain  in  place.  But  though  a  deception  is  not 
discovered,  how  much  better  to  compose  as  pleasing 
a  thing  in  a  style  the  outcome  of  materials  or  circum- 
stances present. 

The  application  of  this  law  to  the  steel  skeleton 

*  "  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture." 


10  A   DISCUSSION   OF   COMPOSITION. 

office-building  has,  as  yet,  never  been  made.  Indeed, 
some  of  our  architects  would  seem  to  believe  it  quite 
impossible  to  design  a  good-looking  building  whose 
walls  do  not  appear  to  be  of  rusticated  stone.  And 
such  men  persist  in  their  mania,  even  though  the 
thinness  of  the  reveals  of  the  windows,  as  well  as  the 
actual  height  of  the  walls,  make  a  use  of  the  sug- 
gested material  evidently  impracticable. 

What  would  have  been  done  by  a  past  age  in  such 
a  dilemma?  Is  there  no  evidence  of  strong  styles 
where  the  construction  was  made  paramount,  and 
frankly  shown?  Surely  there  are  many  examples. 
Gothic,  for  instance,  is  a  continual  reproach  to  us. 
But  not  to  go  so  far  back  as  the  XII.  and  XIII.  cen- 
turies, we  find  that  the  English,  Flemish,  German, 
and  French  architects  of  the  Renaissance,  were  able  to 
construct  apparent  wood  skeleton  buildings,  filled  in 
with  bricks  and  other  materials,  and  were  able  to 
make  the  most  beautiful  kind  of  house,  at  that.  Can 
we  not  do  as  well  with  protected  steel  beams  filled  in 
with  armed  cement  or  terra  cotta? 

Of  course  nine-tenths  of  the  architects  of  to-day 
would  cry  ''Factory!"  to  such  a  suggestion.  Yes, 
the  buildings  made  of  apparent  iron  beams  and  brick, 
do  look  like  factories  and  warehouses ;  but  that  is  be- 
cause no  one  has  yet  tried  to  bring  any  art  to  the  help 
of  the  builder  and  engineer,  the  architect  disdaining 
them  as  much  as  he  is  disdained.  I  dare  say,  if  the 
present  day,  this  age  of  hurry  and  cheapness,  had  con- 
fided to  it  the  fostering  of  a  newly  born  style  of  wood 
construction,  all  attractive  arrangements  of  beams, 


SINCERITY  AND   TRUTH.  11 

all  carAdng  of  brackets,  all  art  in  the  filling  in  of 
spaces,  would  be  omitted,  and  again  we  might  cry 
''Factory!" 

The  second  of  the  heads  suggested  by  Ruskin  is 
exemplified  in  the  chalets  at  Versailles,  the  Milan 
Cathedral,  and  in  our  own  Colonial  architecture.  I 
shall  never  forget  my  pleasure  in  first  seeing  the 
charming  little  chalets,  in  the  gardens  of  the  Petit 
Trianon.  Hiding  among  the  trees,  they  dotted  the 
sunny  park,  and  its  quiet  lake  and  stream  with  re- 
flecting and  ever-changing  colors;  and  peopled  the 
landscape  of  my  fancy  with  maids  and  gallants,  half 
princely,  half  peasant,  flitting  from  house  to  dairy  on 
their  innocent  errands.  Nor  shall  I  also  forget  my 
feeling  of  chagrined  disillusion  and  disgust,  on  dis- 
covering the  bricks  and  beams,  even  the  ruined 
patches  of  these  same  chalets,  to  be  all  paint ;  a  faith- 
ful picture  of  the  purpose  for  which  the  whole  was 
built,  the  poor  sham  of  a  rotten  age ! 

The  painted  tracery  and  vaulting  of  Milan's 
Cathedral  is  so  well  known,  that  it  needs  no  comment ; 
but  it  is  well  to  keep  in  mind,  as  an  example  of  the 
ill  success  of  such  artifices. 

For  our  Colonial  architecture,  the  architects  of  the 
time,  at  least,  translated  the  proportions  of  Renais- 
sance styles  with  which  they  were  familiar,  in  such  a 
way  that  the  slender  columns  made  no  pretense  of 
being  other  than  painted  wood.  But  our  modern 
architects,  having  been  to  school  just  long  enough  to 
learn  their  orders  (the  proportions  of  stone  construc- 
tion), must  need  apply  these,  with  sagacious  care  and 
lose  all  the  charm  of  the  older  work. 


12  A   DISCUSSION   OF   COMPOSITION. 

With  regard  to  the  limits  which  should  govern  the 
introduction  of  architectural  elements  in  painting,  a 
suggestion  of  Ruskin's  will  suffice.  He  is  referring  to 
the  ceiling  of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  and  remarks  in  his 
virile  fashion:*  "So  great  a  painter  as  Michael  An- 
gelo  would  always  stop  short  in  such  minor  parts  of 
his  design,  of  the  degree  of  vulgar  force  which  would 
be  necessary  to  induce  the  supposition  of  their  reality ; 
and  strangely  as  it  may  sound,  would  never  paint 
badly  enough  to  deceive. ' '  That  is  the  keynote  of  the 
whole  question ;  a  great  artist  would  never  deceive. 

The  third  kind  of  deceit  noted,  that  of  using  cast- 
iron  ornaments,  is  well  known  in  the  modern  office  and 
commercial  building;  this,  be  it  said  to  their  glory, 
American  architects  so  much  despised,  that  one  of  our 
leading  firms  offered  to  pay,  out  of  their  own  pockets, 
for  a  stone  cornice,  when  a  building  committee  would 
have  contented  themselves  with  a  copper  one. 

There  is  another  deceit  that  may  be  practised  in 
architecture,  that  is,  with  regard  to  the  amount  of 
work  performed.  Again  an  example  will  be  sufficient 
explanation.  Walking  behind  the  balustrade  in  front 
of  the  Frangois  I.  dormers  in  the  Court  at  Blois,  one 
notices  the  running  decorations  which  surround  these 
dormers  to  be  discontinued,  as  soon  as  they  are  no 
longer  visible  from  the  ground.  In  such  a  case,  if 
perfectly  evident  that  there  is  waste  of  precious  orna- 
ment on  account  of  its  being  hidden,  then  no  sugges- 
tion that  the  ornament  continues  should  be  allowed. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  there  is  a  reason  for  making  the 

•  "  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture." 


CHAKACTER.  13 

suggestion,  the  ornament  should  be  continued  to  the 
end. 

This  need  of  truth  induces  the  need  of  character  in 
a  building,  and  brings  us  to  the  discussion  of  a  second 

law. 

Chakacter. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  character  to  be  sought  for. 

1.  The  work  should  bear  the  individuality  of  the 
artist. 

2.  The  work  should  express  that  for  which  it  has 
been  constructed. 

1.  A  work  of  art  must  show  forth  the  individuality 
of  the  artist. 

It  is  the  personality  of  the  artist  which  makes  a 
work  of  art  living;  this  we  must  realize  when  we 
remember  that  true  art  is  the  expression  of  a  feeling, 
of  an  emotion  which  the  artist  has  experienced. 

There  is  a  reassuring  strain  in  the  converse  of 
such  a  truth,  for  while  the  expressed  character  of  the 
artist  is  that  which  gives  a  creation  vitality,  he  who 
is  great  enough  to  evolve  an  immortal  composition 
is  sure  to  have  such  strong  characteristics  and  be- 
liefs about  art,  that  they  force  themselves  into,  and 
permeate  his  work. 

We  have  but  to  turn  our  eyes  to  the  masterpieces 
of  preceding  ages  to  be  convinced.  No  one  would 
falter  in  placing  the  authorship  of  the  "Night 
Watch,"  Boticelli's  ''Spring"  or  an  hundred  others. 
Who  does  not  Imow  a  bit  of  Chopin  the  instant  heard, 
or  fails  to  recognize  the  difference  in  feeling  between 
the  balustrade  of  the  tribune  in  the  ' '  Salle  des  Caria- 


14  A  DISCUSSION   OF   COMPOSITION. 

tides"  in  the  Louvre,  and  the  Jean  Gonjou  figures 
that  support  it? 

I  do  not  mean  by  this  that  an  artist  may  not  bor- 
row from  a  preceding  work  of  art,  provided  he  im- 
prints thereupon  his  personality.  Euskin  says,* 
''Now  in  the  first  place— and  this  is  rather  an  im- 
portant point— it  is  no  sign  of  deadness  in  a  present 
art  that  it  borrows  or  imitates,  but  only  if  it  borrows 
without  paying  interest,  or  if  it  imitates  without 
choice."  He  speaks  farther  on  of  Raffaelle  borrow- 
ing from  Masaccio  and  Perugino.  He  might  also 
have  taken  Shakespeare  as  an  example  to  remind  us 
how  a  genius  may  frankly  adopt  a  plot  and  yet  in- 
fuse into  it,  new  and  greater  spirit;  or  have  told  us 
how  Gounod,  yes,  and  the  great  Beethoven  himself, 
have  both  used  themes  of  Bach. 

There  is  a  point  common  to  all  these  adaptations, 
of  which  we  should  not  lose  sight.  The  true  artist 
never  seeks  to  conceal  what  he  has  done,  and  to  turn 
what  has  been  an  inspiration  into  plagiarism.  In- 
deed he  is  usually  too  happy  over  his  own  interpre- 
tation of  a  motive  not  to  insist  on  a  recognition  of 
the  earlier  one. 

There  is  a  flagrant  error  which  should  here  be 
noted.  It  is  the  mistaking  of  the  bizarre,  of  some- 
thing merely  different  from  what  has  been  done  be- 
fore, for  that  which  is  personal. 

I  have  found  young  students  preferring  one  of 
two  architectural  arrangements,  simply  because  some 
one  else  had  chosen  the  other;  this  despite  the  fact 

*  "  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture." 


CHAKACTEB.  15 

that  that  other  would  have  been  iniich  the  better.  A 
man  of  small  nature  who  works  for  immediate  fame 
is  likely  to  embrace,  if  he  can  not  originate,  the 
latest  fad,  and  become  a  decadent,  a  symbolist,  or  a 
neo-impressionist.  He  has  made  a  reputation  as 
''that  clever  artist  who  draws  all  his  figures  with  a 
double  line,"  or  ''the  man  who  catches  the  English 
girl  so  dashingly,"  and  so  he  continues  paying  more 
attention  to  newspaper  reports  than  to  the  sincerity 
of  his  work. 

It  was  not  so  with  Corot.  Here  we  find  an  artist, 
heaped  with  abuse  by  the  academicians  of  the  age; 
refused  at  the  Salon,  working  quietly  away  at  what 
he  feels  and  believes  to  be  right;  not  because  some 
one  is  going  to  approve;  not  that  he  himself  is  go- 
ing to  approve ;  but  because  he  sees  it  thus,  and  loves 
the  portraying  of  it. 

It  should  always  be  remembered  that  individuality 
of  expression  can  never  be  an  excuse  for  faulty  draw- 
ing, proportion  or  composition.  Indeed,  no  quali- 
ties can  make  up  for  such  faults;  while  the  sound 
worth  and  sense  of  rest  given  by  the  opposite  M.  Henri 
Mayeux  aptly  expresses  in  his  treatise  on  decorative 
composition.*  Cette  maniere  libre  de  proceder,  en 
semant  au  hasard  sur  les  formes  des  fleurs,  des  fruits, 
des  oiseaux  ou  des  figures,  sans  tenir  compte,  le  plus 
souvent,  ni  de  la  courbure  des  surfaces,  ni  des  aretes 
limitant  les  plans,  accuse  une  absence  de  parti  que  ne 
saurait  remplacer  la  facture  la  plus  brillante.  *  *  * 
Si  Ton  supporte  un  decorateur  du  XVII®  siecle  lourd 

*  Henri  Mayeux,  "  La  Composition  Decorative,"  Librairies  Impri- 
meries  Rguniea,  Paris,  pp.  73,  74. 


16  A   DISCUSSION   OF   COMPOSITION. 

et  banal,  grace  a  la  science  avec  laquelle  il  salt  regler 
ses  compositions,  on  ne  saurait  admettre  un  artiste 
japonais  sans  le  diable  an  corps." 

One  of  our  great  faults  in  America  is  the  vast 
amount  of  attention  we  pay  to  being  original,  to  the 
detriment  of  attaining  actual  worth  and  artistic 
strength.  "We  are  continually  crying  out  for  a  new 
style,  or  affecting  a  borrowed  one,  instead  of  turn- 
ing our  attention  to  serious  technical  study  and  allow- 
ing our  personality  to  assert  itself.  To  quote  again 
from  Euskin,*  ''A  day  never  passes  without  our 
hearing  our  English  architects  called  upon  to  be 
original  and  to  invent  a  new  style ;  about  as  sensible 
and  necessary  an  exhortation  as  to  ask  of  a  man  who 
has  never  had  rags  enough  on  his  back  to  keep  out 
cold,  to  invent  a  new  mode  of  cutting  a  coat.  Give 
him  a  whole  coat  first,  and  let  him  concern  himself 
about  the  fashion  of  it  afterwards.  We  want  no  new 
style  of  architecture.  Who  wants  a  new  style  of 
painting  or  sculpture?  But  we  want  some  style.  It 
is  of  marvelously  little  importance  if  we  have  a  code 
of  laws  and  they  be  good  laws,  whether  they  be  new 
or  old,  foreign  or  native,  Roman  or  Saxon  or  Norman 
or  English  laws.  But  it  is  of  considerable  im- 
portance that  we  should  have  a  code  of  laws  of  one 
kind  or  another,  and  that  code  accepted  and  en- 
forced. *  *  *  A  man  who  has  the  gift  will  take  up 
any  style  that  is  going,  the  style  of  his  day  and  will 
work  in  that  and  make  everything  that  he  does  in  it 
look  as  fresh  as  if  every  thought  of  it  had  just  come 
down  from  heaven.  *  *  *  Neither  originality,  there- 

*  "  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture." 


CHARACTEE.  17 

fore,  nor  change,  good  though  both  may  be,  and  this 
is  commonly  a  most  merciful  and  enthusiastic  sup- 
position with  respect  to  either,  are  ever  to  be  sought 
in  themselves,  or  can  ever  be  healthily  obtained  by 
any  struggle  or  rebellion  against  common  laws.  We 
want  neither  the  one  nor  the  other. ' ' 

Perhaps  the  best  way  to  close  this  discussion  of 
individuality  is  to  ask  ourselves  the  question,  ''How 
can  we  make  our  work  characteristic  of  us?"  Howf 
By  doing  as  Corot  did,  executing  what  we  really  feel 
and  love.  Only  that  produced  by  an  artist  who  takes 
pleasure  in  his  creation,  will  be  good ;  in  essence,  that 
will  always  be  good. 

In  one  of  the  arches  of  the  Cour  Du  Murier  in 
the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  at  Paris  is  a  bronze 
figure,  half  finished,  the  fingers  and  other  details 
merely  blocked  out.  But  a  spirit  of  life  pervades  the 
bowed  head,  and  draws  one  for  a  second  look.  Learn- 
ing that  the  sculptor  was  only  a  student  one  wonders 
whence  came  the  genius  that  could  give  so  young  a 
man  such  strength.  Then  the  guardian  tells  of  the 
passionate  love  the  man  had  for  his  work;  how  one 
cold  night,  fearing  the  clay  of  the  unfinished  statue 
would  freeze,  he  rose  from  his  cot  in  a  comer  of  the 
studio  and  wrapped  his  own  coverings  about  the  in- 
animate mass. 

It  is  easy  to  guess  the  sequel,  and  know  that  we 
stand  in  the  presence  of  the  sculptor's  spirit,  itself 
shining  from  the  eyes  of  the  figure  he  died  to  save. 

It  would  hardly  do  to  ask  all  of  our  artists  to  die 
for  their  work ;  there  would  be  no  more  artists ;  but  it 

3 


/ 


A 


18  A   DISCUSSION   OP   COMPOSITION. 

is  not  too  much  to  ask  them  to  be  willing  to  die  for  it. 
Loving  our  work,  we  will  do  it  for  its  own  sake,  not 
for  fame ;  still  less  on  account  of  the  money  received ; 
and  we  will  never  put  up  with  a  poor  interpretation 
of  it. 

Ruskin*  speaks  of  the  attitude  of  our  predeces- 
sors in  architecture  as  being  **the  opposite  of  the 
prevalent  feeling  of  modern  times,  which  desires  to 
produce  the  largest  results  at  the  least  cost.  We 
are  none  of  us  so  good  architects  as  to  be  able 
to  work  habitually  beneath  our  strength;  and  yet 
there  is  not  a  building  that  I  know  of,  lately  raised, 
I  wherein  it  is  not  sufficiently  evident  that  neither 
!      architect  nor  builder  has  done  his  best. 

* '  It  is  the  especial  characteristic  of  modem  work, 
y  All  old  work  nearly  has  been  hard  work.  It  may 
be  the  hard  work  of  children,  of  barbarians,  of 
1  rustics;  but  it  is  always  their  utmost.  Ours  has  as 
constantly,  the  look  of  money's  worth;  of  a  stop- 
ping short  whenever  and  wherever  we  can;  of  a 
lazy  compliance  with  low  conditions;  never  of  a 
fair  putting  forth  of  our  strength." 

A  well  known  Cleveland  architect  in  speaking 
of  the  most  respected  architectural  firm  of  the  day 
said  to  me,  ''Their  work,  no  matter  what  its  faults, 
is  always  worth  while  and  interesting  on  account 
of  its  workmanship.  They  never  put  up  with  bad 
stuff." 

Ruskin 's  lecture  on  Turnerf  shows  us  a  man  of 
the  type  we  should  imitate.      ''There  was  another 

*  "  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture." 

t  "  Lectures  on  Architecture  and  Painting." 


< 


CHAKACTER.  19 

difference  between  Turner  and  other  men.  In 
doing  these  drawings  for  the  commonest  publica- 
tions of  the  day,  and  for  a  remuneration  altogether 
contemptible,  he  never  did  his  work  badly  or  be- 
cause he  thought  it  beneath  him,  or  because  he  was 
ill-paid.  There  does  not  exist  such  a  thing  as  a 
slovenly  drawing  by  Turner. 

''With  what  people  were  willing  to  give  him  for 
his  work  he  was  content;  but  he  considered  that 
work  in  relation  to  himself,  not  in  its  relation  to 
the  purchaser.  He  took  a  poor  price  that  he  might 
live;  but  he  made  noble  drawings  that  he  might 
learn.  *  *  *  He  never  let  a  drawing  leave  his 
hands  without  having  made  a  step  in  advance  and 
having  done  better  in  it  than  he  had  ever  done  be- 
fore; and  there  is  no  important  drawing  of  the 
period  which  is  not  executed  with  a  total  disregard 
of  time  and  price  and  which  was  not  even  then  worth 
four  or  five  times  what  Turner  received  for  it." 

Kipling  has  expressed  in  the  "Envoi"  of  the 
Seven  Seas  the  need  of  love  for  one's  work  and 
we  can  hardly  do  better  than  turn  to  the  testimony 
of  a  brother  artist  whose  plane  few,  if  any  of  us, 
can  even  hope  to  reach : 

"And  only  the  Master  shall  praise  us, 

And  only  the  Master  shall  blame ; 
And  no  one  shall  work  for  money, 

And  no  one  shall  work  for  fame. 
But  each  for  the  joy  of  the  working, 

And  each  in  his  separate  star, 
Shall  draw  the  thing  as  he  sees  it 

For  the  God  of  things  as  they  are." 


20  A   DISCUSSION   OF   COMPOSITION. 

2.  The  work  should  express  that  for  which  it 
has  been  constructed. 

Architectural  compositions  apparently  range  be- 
tween two  extremes;  the  useful  and  the  ideal.  If 
one  looks  into  this  carefully,  one  sees  that  it  is 
really  an  expression  of  the  laws  just  enounced. 

As  a  first  example:  A  factory  is  constructed  for 
the  manufacture  of  tin  cans.  Then  the  windows, 
the  chimneys,  each  detail,  should  tend  to  further 
that  end;  a  certain  family  look,  common  to  such 
building,  a  certain  character  far  more  satisfactory 
than  a  costly,  decorated  fagade,  useless  and  out  of 
harmony  with  the  work  done  inside  the  walls,  will 
be  the  result. 

Here  is  another  extract  from  the  "Lectures  on 
Architecture"  which  illustrates  my  point.  "The 
first  thing  required  of  a  building— not,  observe, 
the  highest  thing— is  that  it  shall  answer  its  pur- 
pose, completely,  permanently,  and  at  the  smallest 
expense.  If  it  is  a  house,  it  should  be  just  of  the 
size  convenient  for  its  owner,  containing  exactly  the 
kind  and  number  of  rooms  that  he  wants  with  ex- 
actly the  number  of  windows  he  wants,  put  in  the 
places  that  he  wants.  If  it  is  a  church,  it  should 
be  just  large  enough  for  its  congregation,  and  of 
such  shape  and  disposition  as  shall  make  them 
comfortable  in  it  and  let  them  hear  well  in  it.  If 
it  be  a  public  office  it  should  be  so  disposed  as  is 
most  convenient  for  the  clerks  in  their  daily  avoca- 
tions; and  so  on;  all  this  being  utterly  irrespective 
of  external   appearance   or  aesthetic   considerations 


< 


CHAEACTER.  21 

of  any  kind;  and  all  being  done  solidly,  securely, 
and  at  the  smallest  necessary  cost. 

"The  sacrifice  of  any  of  these  first  requirements 
to  external  appearance  is  a  futility  and  absurdity. 
Rooms  must  not  be  darkened  to  make  the  ranges 
of  windows  symmetrical.  Useless  wings  must  not 
be  added  on  one  side  to  balance  useful  wings  on 
the  other;  but  the  house  built  with  one  wing  if  the 
owner  has  no  need  of  two    *    *    *    ." 

Never  allow  the  hope  of  tickling  the  visual  palate 
of  the  public,  never  let  the  better  hope  of  beautify- 
ing our  American  cities,  betray  you  into  an  archi- 
tectural expression,  out  of  keeping  with  your  pro- 
gram. In  that  case,  you  will  have  no  more  success 
than  the  spinster,  whose  young  charms  borrowed 
from  the  hair  dresser  and  rouge  pot  do  little  to  pro- 
tect her  from  the  sneers  of  kind  friends. 

But  let  us  take  another  example.  The  build- 
ing is  to  be  a  commemorative  monument  for  a  great 
man.  Then  let  everything  give  way  to  such  an  ex- 
pression. Here  strength  must  be  personified  in 
massive  supports;  the  details  should  be  simple  and 
scholarly,  large  in  scale  perhaps,  forcing  the  be- 
holder to  realize  that  the  house  is  that  of  a  god 

rather  than  of  a  common  mortal.      The  style  must 

r 

be  in  keeping  with  such  a  feeling;  and  the  dura- 
bility and  undying  power,  the  old  Egyptians  knew 
so  well  how  to  compass,  should,  though  interpreted 
in  modem  form,  bear  witness  to  the  lasting  fame 
and  immortal  soul,  that  crumbling  stone  is  unable 
either  to  outlive  or  enclose. 


u 


22  A   DISCUSSION   OF   COMPOSITION. 

The  primary  reason  for  a  creation  like  that  last 
described,  is  an  ideal  one,  and  the  so-called  monu- 
mental feeling  which  forms  such  a  large  part— in 
the  eyes  of  some  men  the  only  real  part— of  archi- 
tecture, is  an  expression  of  this.  In  fact  we  may 
define  the  "monumental"  as  that  which  responds 
to  the  need  of  the  ideal  in  contrast  to  that  for  merely 
human  requirements. 

G.  Baldwin  Brown,  speaking  of  the  ideal,*  directs 
us  to  the  prehistoric  monuments  of  Western  Europe, 
"these  'Menhirs'  and  'Cromlechs'  and  'Dolmens' 
of  imperishable  stone,  often  sublime  by  their  very 
size  and  weight,  and  pregnant  with  a  meaning 
which  to  us  must  ever  remain  obscure.  *  *  *  We 
can  not  gaze  up  at  these  rugged  memorials  of 
hoariest  antiquity  without  feeling  them  to  be  the 
expression  of  some  great  idea  that  once  filled  the 
minds  of  their  creators.  What  if  this  idea  was 
!  immortality— that  creed  which  formed  the  central 
i  point  of  the  religion  of  Egypt—  *  *  *  j  ^^q 
need  not  speculate  upon  this  hazardous  though 
fascinating  theme;  for  all  we  want  from  these 
'Rude  Stone  Monuments'  is  evidence  that  at  a  very 
early  date  in  the  history  of  humanity,  men  felt  an 
;  impulse  to  embody  the  faith  that  was  in  them  in 
\  some  vast  and  enduring  structure;  a  thing  not  for 
material  use,  but  a  witness  to  such  spiritual  concep- 
tions as  the  family  idea  on  the  indestructibility  of 
the  human  intelligence.  So  out  of  the  performance 
of  funeral  rites— a  family  celebration  and  in  a  large 

•  G.  Baldwin  Brown,  "  The  Fine  Arts,"  Scribners,  1896,  pp.  26-29. 


CHARACTEB.  23 

sense  of  the  word  a  festival— proceeds  the  desire  for 
the  permanent  expression  of  the  thought  that  filled 
every  heart,  and  with  the  satisfaction  of  this  desire, 
monumental  architecture  and  not  only  this  but 
monumental  sculpture  also  are  bom."  And 
farther  on  he  says :  ' '  There  is  something  megalithic, 
primeval,  in  the  aspect  of  the  noblest  buildings  of 
all  times.  *  *  *  Give  him  an  opportunity  and 
allow  him  to  create  in  freedom  and  every  architect 
worthy  of  the  name  will  build  for  an  idea,  will 
build  massively  and  build  forever,  and  a  part  not 
the  least  noble  of  this  first  of  the  arts  will  descend 
to  it  from  the  far-distant  and  unknown  creators  of 
Stonehenge  and  Carnac." 

Once  again,  in  discussing  ''Mass,  Stability  and 
Architectural  Sublimity,"*  Mr.  Brown  suggests 
that  the  monumental  feeling— the  expression  of 
something  superhuman— may  be  obtained  by  an  ex- 
cess of  the  first  two,  as  well  as  by  the  almost  in- 
credible labor  evidenced  in  such  a  building  as  the 
Great  Pyramid;  or  the  wonderful  intellectual 
strength  and  daring  personified  in  the  Forth  Bridge, 
the  Eiffel  Tower  or  a  Gothic  Cathedral,  all  of  which 
last  he  classes  under  the  third  head. 

Later  on,  discussing  ''Scale,"  we  shall  see  that 
it  is  not  alone  "Mass"  that  gives  the  monumental 
feeling.  On  the  whole,  it  is  better  to  keep  to  the 
broad  definition  and  remember  that  we  shall  succeed 
in  inducing  the  "Monumental,"  by  making  our 
works  for  more  than  men;  personifications  of  an 
idea.     Thus  did  Michael  Angelo,  before  us. 

*  "  Fine  Arts,"  pp.  161-163. 


24  A  DISCUSSION   OF   COMPOSITION. 

Most  buildings  of  the  present  day  have,  in  a 
measure,  to  satisfy  demands  of  both  the  practical 
and  the  monumental.  Although  giving  scope  to  the 
architect's  imagination,  this  only  complicates  the 
problem.  It  is  possible  to  triumph  over  the  diffi- 
culties of  such  a  situation  by  accentuating  the 
peculiarities  or  characteristics  of  the  special  case. 

All  practically  required  elements  should  be 
frankly  shown,  never  hidden  through  a  fear  of  their 
not  being  decorative.  This  delineation  of  character 
can  not  be  carried  too  far ;  and  in  its  finer  expression 
it  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  things  to  accomplish. 

As  a  problem  to  demonstrate  my  meaning,  I 
would  suggest  that  five  little  sketches  be  made,  of 
commemorative  monuments  of  the  same  dimensions, 
to  express  the  very  different  programs  following: 

A  monument  to  George  Eliot. 

A  monument  to  Chaminade. 

A  monument  to  commemorate  the  founding  of 
the  French  Republic. 

A  monument  to  commemorate  the  liberation  of 
Cuba. 

A  monument  in  honor  of  Architecture. 

The  salt  of  each  such  monument,  be  it  ever  so 
good,  as  a  mere  composition  and  piece  of  sculpture, 
will  surely  have  lost  its  savour,  if  an  inscription  is 
needed' to  tell  the  tale. 

Fkankness,  Decisiveness. 
This  is  our  third  law. 

One  of  the  most  distressing  faults  in  a  man  is 
a  vacillating  temperament.     A  poor  fellow  who  has 


FKANKNESS,    DECISIVENESS.  25 

not  the  strength  of  character  to  be  good  nor  the  wit 
to  be  really  bad,  a  moral  jelly-fish,  awakes  nothing 
but  loathing.  It  is  the  story  of  the  church  of  the 
Laodiceans,  and  we  might  well  pray  for  another 
John  the  Divine  to  denounce  anew  ''I  know  thy 
works ;  that  thou  art  neither  cold  nor  hot.  I  would 
thou  wert  cold  or  hot.  So  then  because  thou  art 
lukewarm,  and  neither  cold  nor  hot,  I  will  spew  thee 
out  of  my  mouth    *    *    *    ." 

Thus  it  is  in  art  too. 

First,  to  take  the  broadest  sense:  A  composition 
that  might  have  been  done  by  any  one,  that  might 
express  anything,  that  might  belong  to  any  style, 
without  positive  faults  merely  because  there  is 
nothing  to  be  faulty,  is  the  poor  weak  botch  no  one 
can  tolerate. 

Every  one  goes  to  see  the  Madeleine  in  Paris. 
Has  any  one  ever  had  for  it  an  enthusiastic  word 
of  praise? 

And  this  natural  scorn  of  the  undecided  is  the 
appropriate  wage  in  all  cases  meted  out  by  the  final 
judge  of  art,  Humanity,  although  the  indecision 
be  only  in  regard  to  details. 

From  the  technical  point  of  view:  the  composi- 
tion that  is  neither  symmetrical  nor  unsymmetrical 
is  bad;  those  elements  of  a  composition,  neither  ac- 
tually equal  in  value  nor  decidedly  different,  are 
distressing.  In  short,  anything  '^on  the  fence"  is 
evidence,  not  only  of  want  of  training  in  the  man 
who  conceived  the  thought ;  but  of  the  lack  of  a  man, 
in  the  training  which  is  supposed  to  have  evolved 
an  artist. 


26  a  discussion  of  composition. 

Simplicity. 
Our  fourth  law,   Simplicity,   is  needful  for  two 
reasons : 

1.  That  the  work  of  art  may  not  contain  details 
understood  only  by  the  initiated. 

2.  That  the  work  of  art  may  be  readable ;  i  e.,  that 
the  beholder  may  grasp  the  ensemble  at  the  first 
glance,  and  so  receive  a  strong  impression. 

1.  In  taking  up  the  discussion  of  the  first  of  these 
two  reasons,  we  may  begin  with  the  premise  drawn 
from  an  earlier  page  of  this  volume :  Since  the  better 
works  of  art,  transmitting  the  nobler  emotions,  are 
proved  by  their  ability  to  reach  men  of  all,  of  widely 
differing  classes,  many  of  whom  are  unacquainted 
with  the  intricacies  and  complications  of  our  modern 
social  machine,  a  truly  broad,  grand  work  of  art  can 
not  rely  for  success  upon  details  understood  only  by 
men  of  one  class ;  but  should  be  free  from  such  details. 

Tolstoi  in  his  ''What  is  Art?"*  discusses  this  sub- 
ject. He  takes,  as  an  example,  the  old  Biblical  tale 
of  ' '  Joseph, ' '  calling  it  an  example  of  universal  art. 
"That  Joseph's  brethren  being  jealous  of  his  father's 
affection  sell  him  to  the  merchants;  that  Potiphar's 
wife  wishes  to  tempt  the  youth ;  that  having  attained 
the  highest  station,  he  takes  pity  on  his  brothers, 
including  Benjamin  the  favorite— these  and  all  the 
rest  are  feelings  accessible  alike  to  a  Russian  peasant, 
a  Chinese,  an  African,  a  child  or  an  old  man,  educated 
or  uneducated;  and  it  is  all  written  with  such  re- 
straint, is  so  free  from  superfluous  detail  that  the 

*  Count  Leo  Tolstoi,  "  What  is  Art  ?"    Translation  by  A.  Maude. 


SIMPLICITY.  27 

story  may  be  told  to  any  circle  and  will  be  equally 
comprehensible  and  touching  to  any  one."  This  he 
contrasts  with  the  modern  novel,  filled  out,  padded, 
in  ways  * '  which  make  the  stories  difficult  of  compre- 
hension to  all  people  not  living  within  reach  of  the 
conditions  described  by  the  author.  *  *  *  The  author 
of  the  novel  of  Joseph  did  not  need  to  describe  in 
detail  as  would  be  done  now-a-days,  the  blood- 
stained coat  of  Joseph,  the  dwelling  and  dress  of 
Jacob,  the  pose  and  attire  of  Potiphar's  wife,  and 
how,  adjusting  the  bracelet  on  her  left  arm  she  said 
'Come  to  me,'  and  so  on,  because  the  subject-matter 
of  feelings  in  this  novel  is  so  strong  that  all  details, 
except  the  most  essential— such  as  that  Joseph  went 
out  into  another  room  to  weep— are  superfluous,  and 
would  only  hinder  the  transmission  of  feelings.  And 
therefore  this  novel  is  accessible  to  all  men,  touches 
people  of  all  nations  and  classes,  young  and  old,  and 
has  lasted  to  our  times,  and  will  yet  last  for  thousands 
of  years  to  come.  But  strip  the  best  novels  of  our 
times  of  their  details,  and  what  will  remain?" 

Farther  on  he  speaks  of  the  difiiculty  of  writing  a 
simple  poem,  or  of  painting  a  simple  picture,  etc., 
'^  without  any  unnecessary  details,  yet  so  that  it 
should  transmit  the  feelings  of  the  narrator;  or  to 
draw  a  pencil-sketch  which  should  touch  or  amuse  the 
beholder;  or  to  compose  four  bars  of  clear  simple 
melody,  without  any  accompaniment,  which  should 
convey  an  impression  and  be  remembered  by  those 
who  hear  it. ' ' 

He  adds,  in  speaking  of  the  final  emancipation  of 


28  A   DISCUSSION   OF   COMPOSITION". 

art:  ''And  therefore  the  ideal  of  excellence  in  the 
future  will  not  be  the  exclusiveness  of  feeling  access- 
ible only  to  some,  but,  on  the  contrary,  its  univer- 
sality. And  not  bulkiness,  obscurity  and  complexity 
of  form,  as  is  now  esteemed,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
brevity,  clearness,  and  simplicity  of  expression. ' ' 

One  of  the  most  moving  sketches  I  have  ever  seen 
was  a  small  water  color  by  Josef  Isreals.  Done  in 
practically  two  tones,  it  showed  the  bent  figure  of  an 
old  man  resting  on  the  brow  of  a  hill  silhouetted 
against  the  evening  sky.  Another  picture  of  the  sa,me 
kind  is  Millet's  shepherdess  with  the  flock. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  see  how  the  greatest  artists  have 
concentrated  their  attention  on  the  real  object  of  their 
masterpieces,  leaving  out  all  possible  details ;  it  seems 
still  less  difficult  to  turn  from  what  they  have  done, 
and,  forgetting  their  example,  spend  our  time,  if  we 
be  painters,  painting  buttons ;  architects,  arranging 
cannon  balls  around  the  bases  or  cannon  in  the  friezes 
of  our  commemorative  monuments. 

Let  us,  of  the  latter  group,  remember  that  he  who 
can  only  tell  the  story  of  his  building  or  monument 
by  the  use  of  symbolical  ornaments  is  but  one  step 
removed  from  the  man  who  needs  the  all-powerful 
help  of  an  inscription.  Although  the  inscription  is 
good  in  its  place,  still  character  should  be  expressed 
by  the  feeling  of  the  whole;  by  its  sternness  or  its 
brilliancy ;  by  the  forbidding  walls  of  the  prison,  or 
the  rising  shafts  and  lofty  arches  which  carry  our 
souls  to  the  Gates  of  Heaven,  the  House  of  God. 

2.  That  the  work  of  art  may  be  clear. 


SIMPLICITY.  29 

It  is  essential  for  force,  indeed  for  any  good  impres- 
sion, that  a  composition  be  easily  grasped  in  ensemble. 

The  reason  human  beings  enjoy  anything  is  that 
they  find  in  the  enjoyment  just  the  requisite  amount 
of  exercise  of  body  or  brain.  Lehman*  says  of  this : 
**Lust  ist  die  psychische  Folge  davon,  dass  ein  Organ 
wahrend  seiner  Arbeit  keine  grossere  Energiemenge 
verbraucht,  als  die  Emahrungsthatigkeit  ersetzen 
kann;  unlust  dagegen  ist  ein  psychische  Folge  jedes 
Misverhaltnisses  zwischen  Verbrauch  und  Emahr- 
ung,  indem  dieselbe  entsteht,  sowohl  wenn  der  Ver- 
brauch an  Energie  die  Zufuhr  iiberschreitet,  als  auch 
wenn  die  Zufuhr  wegen  Unthiitigkeit  des  Organs  das 
Maximum,  das  aufgenommen  werden  kann,  iiber- 
schreitet. ' ' 

Quoting  another  writer :t  ''Mr.  Herbert  Spencer 
has  given  us  a  formula  applicable  to  all  these  cases. 
For  aesthetic  pleasure,  he  explains, '  many  elements  of 
perceptive  faculty  must  be  called  into  play  while  none 
are  over  exerted;  there  must  be  a  great  body  of  the 
feeling  arising  from  their  moderate  action,  without 
the  deduction  of  any  pain  from  extreme  action.'  " 
Farther  on,  the  same  writer,  speaking  of  clearness, 
says :  ' '  The  physiology  of  the  matter  is  evident.  In 
a  composition,  say,  of  a  picture,  or  of  the  facade  of  a 
building,  if  there  is  a  medley  of  lines  all  running  in 
different  directions  the  eye  in  following  them  is  dis- 
tracted and  worried;  it  seeks  to  find  a  way  through 
the  maze,  but  is  continually  balked  and  turned  aside. 

*  See  Lehman's  "  Die  Hauptgesetze  des  Menschlichen  Gef  iihls- 
lebens,"  Leipzig,  Reisland,  1892,  p.  156. 

t  G.  Baldwin  Brown,  "  Fine  Arts,"  p.  191. 


30  A   DISCUSSION   OF   COMPOSITION. 

The  same  is  the  case  if  the  lines  all  seem  to  lead  away 
out  of  the  composition  in  different  directions ;  the  eye 
then  parts  from  the  work  and  has  each  time  to  be 
brought  back  to  it  from  the  outside. ' ' 

Whether  or  not  the  physiological  or  psychological 
theory  just  stated  is  sufficient  to  explain  all  kinds  of 
aesthetic  enjoyment,  we  must,  at  least,  acknowledge 
the  aptness  of  the  example;  and  may  pass  to  an  in- 
vestigation of  how  clearness  is  to  be  obtained. 

Practically,  we  may  direct  our  study  from  two 
points  of  view  as  embodied  in  the  two  following  state- 
ments : 

(a)  The  interpretation  of  a  composition,  the 
' '  f acture, ' '  even  though  in  itself  pleasing,  should  not 
attract  the  attention. 

(b)  No  minor  subjects  or  details  should  exist  which 
may  make  the  principal  emotion,  subject,  or  motive, 
hard  to  find  and  grasp. 

(a)  If  a  writer  is  intent  on  expressing  an  idea 
which  he  wants  others  to  receive,  he  does  not  choose 
a  confused  and  distorted  type  for  his  book,  interesting 
as  the  letters  individually  may  be,  nor  does  he  use  an 
obsolete  or  unusual  form  of  language,  however  attrac- 
tive OT  quaint;  but  he  eliminates  all  distracting  ele- 
ments, so  that  the  message  he  has  to  deliver  may  stand 
clearly  forth. 

I  once  asked  a  well-known  painter  his  definition  of 
an  impressionist.  ' '  Why, ' '  he  said, ' '  all  great  paint- 
ers are  impressionists.     Corot  was  an  impressionist. ' ' 

He  was  right;  and,  strange  as  it  may  sound,  the 
impressionists  are  often  not  impressionists  at  all, 
much  as  they  vaunt  their  goddess. 


SIMPLICITY.  31 

Yes,  one  has  but  to  look  at  a  Corot  to  feel  the  early 
morning  air  of  spring,  to  hear  the  light  wind  in  the 
trees ;  and  the  graceful  figure  of  a  young  girl  but  adds 
to  the  sensation,  conveyed  in  the  first  glance,  that  here 
is  both  the  fresh  promise  of  life  and  a  new  day.  How 
cheap,  in  contrast,  are  the  fads  of  schools  which  dis- 
tract the  spectator  from  any  appreciation  of  the  sub- 
ject, however  strong  in  conception,  by  forcing  upon 
his  attention  numberless  lines  or  spots  of  paint. 

In  the  rendering  of  an  architectural  drawing  the 
architect  should  see  to  it  that,  no  matter  how  clever 
an  effect  may  be  obtained  by  ''chic"  contrasts,  if  the 
striking  accompaniment  to  what  is  the  real  subject,  be 
out  of  keeping,  or  prevents  a  full  appreciation  of  that 
subject,  it  should  not  be  tolerated. 

(b)  In  the  same  spirit,  any  impediment,  through 
details,  to  a  firm  grasp  of  the  dominating  idea  or 
motive  of  a  composition  should  be  ruthlessly  swept 
away.  The  second  part  of  the  definition :  "  A  master- 
piece is  that  to  which  nothing  can  be  added  and  from 
tvhich  nothing  can  be  taken,"  must  be  kept  carefully 
in  mind. 

Henri  Mayeux,*  in  the  "Composition  Decorative," 
says  of  what  he  calls  "la  clarte":  '<*  *  *  c'est  la 
vision  facile  et  sans  confusion,  meme  a  distance;  ce 
sont  les  motifs  se  lisant,  quelle  que  soit  leur  compli- 
cation, d'un  seul  coup  d'oeil  et  sans  effort.  L 'inde- 
cision dans  le  parti  adopte,  I'abus  des  details,  le 
manque  de  franchise  dans  le  role  assigne  a  I'objet 
d'art,  c'est-a  dire  tous  les  defauts  opposes  a  la  clarte, 

•Henry  Mayeux,  "La  Composition  Decorative,"  p.  IL 


32  A   DISCUSSION   OF   COMPOSITION. 

ne  se  retrouvent,  helas!  que  trop  souvent  dans  les. 
productions  courantes  5  *  *  *  " 

Power  is  always  gained  by  simplicity,  and  lost  by 
the  opposite ;  yet  the  more  intricate  we  make  our  com- 
positions, the  more  are  we  tempted  to  congratulate 
ourselves  for  cleverness,  and  this  with  the  open  book 
of  Nature  at  our  side. 

How  grand  is  a  stretch  of  sea  with  only  a  sand-dune 
in  the  foreground !  As  we  stand  gazing  at  the  waves 
rolling  in  and  breaking  with  ceaseless  repetition  on 
the  beach,  a  bank  of  dark  clouds  moving  towards  us 
from  the  horizon,  no  one  of  us  fails  to  be  impressed 
by  the  mighty  spirit  which  envelops  and  bears  us  up, 
making  us  forget  the  finite,  in  the  nearest  approach 
our  poor  human  perceptions  can  compass  of  the  in- 
finite. Truly,  there  are  no  details  here  to  call  us  back 
from  Heaven  to  Earth,  from  the  contemplation  of 
God's  power  to  that  of  a  carefully  painted  shell, 
standing  obtrusively  out  from  the  picture. 

We  may  be  thankful  that,  though  modern  art  seems 
at  times  to  have  lost  her  head,  and  to  be  playing  with 
the  butterflies  and  flowers  by  the  wayside,  Nature  is 
always  before  us,  a  beacon  light  on  the  broad  road  to 
true  greatness. 

Yes !  If  we  create  strong,  powerful  works  of  art, 
we  must  adopt  for  our  guidance  the  sibyl  of  sim- 
plicity. 

Carefulness  ;  Thoughtfulness. 

Farther  back,  under  the  heading  of  ''Character," 
I  said  that  an  artist  must  love  his  work.  Under  this 
present  plea  for  "simplicity,"  I  want  to  add  what 


carefulness;  thoughtfulness.  33 

may  seem  at  first  sight  a  negation  of  the  former  word ; 
but  which  will  prove,  on  consideration,  the  outcome  of 
such  love :  ' '  Do  not  waste  your  ornament. ' ' 

I  say  that  unwillingness  to  waste  ornament  should 
be  the  result  of  the  artist's  love  for  it.  And  is  it 
not  so? 

The  man  who  specifies  a  machine-made  piece  of 
** stock"  is  unconcerned  as  to  whether  it  be  plastered 
up  in  a  place  where  it  is  useless  or  not.  But  the 
artist,  who  has  spent  himself  on  a  bit  of  detail,  is  as 
unhappy  at  the  thought  of  its  desecration  as  is  the 
mother  whose  child  is  carried  away  captive  by  bar- 
barians. 

Seeing  wasted  ornament,  one  realizes  that  it  is 
cheap  trash,  cheaply  disposed  of. 

There  are  three  ways  of  wasting  ornament:  By 
making  it  of  a  kind  unsuited  to  the  material  in  which 
it  is  to  be  executed ;  by  making  it  of  a  kind  unsuited 
to  what  will  be  required  of  it,  and  by  making  it  of  a 
kind  unsuited  to  the  position  it  is  to  occupy. 

To  illustrate  the  first:  Our  American  fashion  of 
carving  fine  detail  out  of  granite  is  the  negation  of 
art.  If  granite  is  the  proper  stone  to  use,  a  broader 
detail  should  be  selected;  or  if  the  fine  work  is  in 
character,  a  more  delicate  stone  should  be  chosen. 

Ruskin  speaks  of  this  and  of  the  second  manner  of 
waste,  as  follows:*  ''Finally,  work  may  be  wasted  by 
being  too  good  for  its  material  or  too  fine  to  bear 
exposure;  and  this,  generally  a  characteristic  of  late 
(Gothic),  especially  of  Renaissance  work,  is  perhaps 

•  "  Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture." 
4 


34  A  DISCUSSION   OF   COMPOSITION. 

the  worst  fault  of  all.  I  do  not  know  anything  more 
painful  or  pitiful  than  the  kind  of  ivory  carving  with 
which  the  Certosa  of  Pavia,  and  part  of  the  Colleone 
Sepulchral  Chapel  at  Bergamo,  and  other  such  build- 
ings are  incrusted.  *  *  *  And  this  is  not  from  the 
quantity  of  it,  nor  because  it  is  bad  work— much  of  it 
is  inventive  and  able ;  but  because  it  looks  as  if  it  were 
only  fit  to  be  put  in  inlaid  cabinets  and  velveted 
caskets,  and  as  if  it  could  not  bear  one  drifting  shower 
or  gnawing  frost.  We  are  afraid  for  it,  anxious 
about  it  and  tormented  by  it ;  and  we  feel  that  a  massy 
shaft  and  a  bold  shadow  would  be  worth  it  all. ' ' 

The  third  way  of  wasting  ornament— misplacing  it 
—has  been  already  referred  to,  on  account  of  the  false 
suggestions  which  may  result.  Either  ornament 
should  be  suited  to  the  place  it  is  to  occupy,  or  the 
place  should  be  suited  to  the  ornament. 

No  work,  even  in  detail,  should  ever  be  slighted. 
An  ornament  which  is  blocked  out  bears  the  same 
relation  to  a  finely  cut  piece  that  indication  does  to 
detailed  drawing.  Indication  does  not  consist  of  put- 
ting all  the  lines  in  quickly  and,  consequently,  any- 
where ;  but,  instead,  of  carefully  selecting  the  charac- 
teristic lines  and,  while  making  such  a  selection  as 
limited  as  possible,  of  putting  them  in  exactly  the 
proper  places. 

To  quote  again  from  Ruskin  on  this  subject:*  '*In 
the  modern  system  of  architecture  decoration  is  im- 
moderately expensive,  because  it  is  wrongly  placed 


*   *  "  Lectures  on  Architecture  and  Painting,"  John  Wiley  and  Sons, 
New  York,  1890,  pp.  59  and  61.    Also  addenda,  pp.  104  and  106. 


^ 


carefulness;  thoughtfulness.  35 

and  wrongly  finished.  I  say  first,  wrongly  placed. 
Modern  architects  decorate  the  tops  of  their  build- 
ings. Mediaeval  ones  decorated  the  bottom.  That 
makes  all  the  difference  between  seeing  the  ornament 
and  not  seeing  it.  If  you  bought  some  pictures  to 
decorate  such  a  room  as  this,  where  would  you  put 
themf  On  a  level  with  the  eye,  I  suppose,  or  nearly 
so?    Not  on  a  level  with  the  chandelier?  *  *  * 

*  *  Not  that  the  Greeks  threw  their  work  away  as  we 
do.  As  far  as  I  know  Greek  buildings  their  orna- 
mentation, though  often  bad,  is  always  bold  enough 
and  large  enough  to  be  visible  in  its  place.  It  is  not 
putting  ornament  high  that  is  wrong,  but  it  is  cutting 
it  too  fine  to  be  seen  wherever  it  is.  *  *  * 

' '  However,  as  this  great  Gothic  principle  seems  yet 
unacknowledged,  let  me  state  it  here,  once  for  all, 
namely,  that  the  whole  building  is  decorated,  in  all 
pure  and  fine  examples,  with  the  most  exactly  studied 
respect  to  the  powers  of  the  eye ;  the  richest  and  most 
delicate  sculpture  being  put  on  the  walls  of  the 
porches  or  on  the  facade  of  the  building,  just  high 
enough  above  the  ground  to  secure  it  from  accidental 
(not  from  wanton)  injury.  The  decoration  as  it 
rises  becomes  always  bolder,  and  in  the  buildings  of 
the  greatest  times,  generally  simpler.  *  *  * 

''The  fa§ade  of  Wells  Cathedral  seems  to  be  an 
exception  to  the  general  rule,  in  having  its  principal 
decoration  at  the  top,  but  it  is  on  a  scale  of  perfect 
power  and  effectiveness;  while  in  the  base  modern 
Gothic  of  Milan  Cathedral  the  statues  are  cut  deli- 
cately everywhere,  and  the  builders  think  it  a  merit 


36  A  DISCUSSION   OF   COMPOSITION. 

that  the  visitor  must  climb  to  the  roof  before  he  can 
see  them ;  and  our  modem  Greek  and  Italian  architec- 
ture reaches  the  utmost  pitch  of  absurdity  by  placing 
its  fine  work  at  the  top  only." 

In  order  that  an  architect  may  properly  understand 
the  application  of  his  ornament,  he  should  be,  in  some 
degree  at  least,  both  painter  and  sculptor.  This  the 
truly  great  architects  of  the  past  have  been :  Phidias 
Giotto,  Michael  Angelo,  Jean  Goujon,  and  how  many 
others!  The  genius  that  directed  the  best  of  what 
was  done  in  the  architecture  of  the  French  Renais- 
sance also  guided  the  hand  that  carved  the  charming 
figures  of  the  Fontaine  des  Innocents. 

The  round  ball,  or  ' '  Dutch  cheese, ' '  which  one  sees, 
from  time  to  time,  perched  with  consummate  grace  on 
the  top  of  a  gate  post,  bearing  testimony  to  the  qual- 
ity of  the  inventive  genius  of  a  poor  architect  who 
can  imagine  nothing  more  interesting,  is  an  apt  ex- 
ample of  what  the  following  decries:*  ''Being,  as  I 
have  said,  in  reality  not  architects  but  builders,  they 
can  indeed  raise  a  large  building,  with  copied  orna- 
ments, which,  being  huge  and  white,  they  hope  the 
public  may  pronounce  '  handsome. '  But  they  cannot 
design  a  cluster  of  oak-leaves— no,  nor  a  single  human 
figure— no,  nor  so  much  as  a  beast  or  a  bird,  or  a 
bird's  nest!  Let  them  first  learn  to  invent  as  much 
as  will  fill  a  quatrefoil,  or  point  a  pinnacle,  and  then 
it  will  be  time  enough  to  reason  with  them  on  the 
principles  of  the  sublime. ' ' 

And  now,  a  few  practical  suggestions  to  give  us 

*  "  Lectures  on  Architecture  and  Painting,"  p.  180. 


carefulness;  thoughtfulness.  37 

courage,  for  the  reader  will  say  that  it  is  not  worth 
while  trying  to  be  an  architect  if  it  is  necessary  to  be 
all  else  first. 

Not  each  one  of  us,  it  is  true,  has  the  artistic  spirit 
in  the  same  degree ;  but  if  we  are  glad  to  do  what  we 
are  doing,  an  early  inability  to  do  it  well  should  not 
disturb  us.  Some  artists,  often  the  greatest,  develop 
but  slowly ;  and  the  truly  artistic  nature,  in  its  embry- 
onic stage,  is  evidenced  more  by  the  love  of  art, 
coupled  with  innate  delicacy  of  temperament,  refine- 
ment, and  strength  of  character,  than  by  the  clever 
brush  or  pencil  stroke  we  are  tempted  to  accept  as  its 
index. 

Guilbert,  one  of  the  strongest  decorators  the  Ecole 
des  Beaux  Arts  can  boast,  began  as  a  poor,  an  impos- 
sible ''nouveau,"  a  youth  pitied  by  his  comrades. 
I  remember  a  retrospective  exhibition  of  Israels '  work 
in  The  Hague,  where  the  early  canvasses  were  the 
most  abominable  daubs  ever  hung  before  the  public. 
On  inquiry,  it  appeared  that  the  great  painter  did 
not  find  himself  until  he  was  over  thirty  years  old. 
Evidences  of  a  like  inability  are  to  be  seen  in  early 
examples  of  Corot's  work  in  the  Mesdag  collection  in 
The  Hague. 

Let  us  take  up,  in  succession,  the  important  points 
which  an  architect  has  to  keep  in  mind. 

First  of  all,  he  must  reason.  As  our  professor 
used  to  tell  us  at  the  studio  (it  was,  I  believe,  an  old 
quotation  from  the  ''atelier  Andre") :  ''Le  raisonne- 
ment;  c'est  la  base  de  TArchitecture. " 

Eeason  about  the  character  of  the  building  you 


38  A   DISCUSSION    OF    COMPOSITION. 

intend  to  construct.  Eeason  about  your  choice  of  a 
certain  scheme  of  composition.  Reason  in  your 
choice  of  motives.  To  sum  it  all  up,  follow  the  gen- 
eral advice  given  to  the  young  chess-player :  ' '  Never 
make  a  move  without  having  a  reason  for  it. ' ' 

Second,  he  must  cultivate  the  imagination  in  every 
possible  way.  He  should  form  the  habit  of  allowing 
one  impression,  or  sensation,  to  suggest  another ;  and 
with  this,  try  to  cultivate  a  power  of  remembering 
what  has  been  observed. 

After  having  seen  a  building,  try  to  recall  the  dif- 
ferent elements  and  details,  distinctly  enough  to  re- 
fer instance,  business  should  be  allied  to  pleasure,  by 
use  in  the  most  unimportant  affairs :  at  a  reception, 
for  instance,  business  should  be  allied  to  pleasure,  by 
noting  new  gowns  and  describing  them  after  a  return 
home. 

In  the  use  of  impressions  or  ideas,  keep  well  in 
mind  that  an  ornament  of  one  sort  may  form  the 
motive  of  a  decoration  of  one  entirely  different.  A 
Norwegian  necklace  may  be  the  bud  from  which  is  to 
flower  forth  a  frieze,  or  the  belt  at  the  base  of  a  dome. 
No  bit  of  decoration  is  insignificant  enought  to  be 
ignored.  Fill  the  mind  with  motives;  so  full  that 
there  will  be  no  danger  of  being  induced  to  copy  any 
one  motive.  Study  everything  that  has  been  done; 
thus  you  may  learn  to  avoid  what  is  bad,  at  the  same 
time  assimilating  what  is  good. 

An  excellent  manner  of  studying  is  to  take  up  dif- 
ferent styles  successively,  making  several  composi- 
tions in  each. 


carefulness;  thoughtfulness.  39 

Third,  the  architect  should  draw  continually,  that 
he  may  become  master  of  his  pencil. 

M.  Henri  Deglane  once  gave  this  rule  (I  am  con- 
vinced it  is  the  best  one),  for  acquiring  a  good 
"touch":  "Carry  a  two  sous  sketch-book  with  you, 
and  draw  everything  you  come  across  with  a  soft 
(a,  B.  B.)  pencil,  using  the  fewest  possible  lines." 
He  might  have  added :  ' '  and  never  pressing  hard  on 
the  paper." 

Last  of  all,  be  it  remembered,  the  great  teacher  of 
artists,  to  whom  all  return  sooner  or  later,  is  Nature ; 
and  be  he  painter,  sculptor,  or  architect,  the  student, 
yes,  and  the  master,  can  find  no  more  beautiful  har- 
mony of  color  than  is  shown  in  the  soft  violet  and 
gray  tones  of  autumn  and  winter  hillsides ;  or  in  the 
glories  of  the  fiery  sunset;  and  he  will  always  fall 
short,  in  his  creations,  of  the  wonderful  contrasts  of 
line  and  form  which  the  human  body,  his  own  ser- 
vant, displayed  during  unconscious  babyhood. 


PART  II. 

CHAPTER   I. 

The  Principles  of  Composition. 

We  have  discussed  the  general  laws  of  character 
governing  an  artistic  composition ;  let  ns  now  turn  to 
the  technical  laws  that  will  aid  us  in  obtaining  an 
effect.  Thus  we  may  work  knowingly,  being  masters 
of  our  subject;  and  not  merely  from  sentiment,  put- 
ting together,  in  a  heterogeneous  mass,  what  seems 
to  us,  for  the  moment,  pleasing. 

And  first  of  all,  a  word  with  regard  to  the  nature 
of  these  principles  would  not  be  amiss. 

I  do  not  believe  that  there  is  a  fixed  standard  of 
beauty  of  proportion;  or,  for  that  matter,  of  shape, 
or  color,  sound,  or  taste. 

For  example,  the  Egyptians  considered  beautiful 
a  certain  type  of  face,  which  we,  now-a-days,  find 
merely  bizarre.  We  moderns,  it  is  true,  have  seen 
the  Greek  face  so  often  portrayed,  that  we  have  come 
to  admire  it;  but  would  a  Greek,  think  you,  tolerate 
the  fin-de-siecle  brunette,  of  a  Paris  salon,  or  even, 
some  of  the  ' '  Gibson  girls, ' '  we  have  learned  to  think 
attractive? 

Then  as  regards  the  proportion  of  the  human  fig- 
ure—few men  of  to-day  would  be  enthusiastic  over  a 

40 


DISCUSSION    OF   PRINCIPLES.  41 

woman  whose  dainty  head  was  but  a  seventh  or 
eighth  of  her  total  height. 

As  with  our  ideas  of  correct  proportion  in  the 
human  form,  so  with  architectural  forms. 

For  several  hundred  years,  certain  proportions 
were  held  proper  for  the  columns  of  the  temples  of 
Egypt.  Then  the  inhabitants  of  another  country, 
Greece,  became  used  to  quite  another  proportion; 
and  finally  the  ^'classic"  column  was  evolved,  and 
made  imperative,  by  the  Roman  builders.  So  on 
through  the  Middle  Ages,  changes  of  fashion  altered 
the  current  idea  of  what  was  beautiful;  until,  after 
the  French  Renaissance  had  contented  itself  with  the 
most  unclassic  proportions,  we  are  come  back  again 
to  the  rule  of  the  Romans. 

But  this  is  only  true  of  mere  comparative  dimen- 
sions, etc.  With  the  laws  of  composition  it  is  quite 
another  thing;  for  they,  like  the  laws  already  dis- 
cussed, are  derived  from  human  characteristics.  The 
fact  that  man's  mind  tires  quickly  of  monotony 
would  induce  us  to  decorate  a  certain  portion  of  our 
composition,  leaving  the  rest  bare.  Thus  would  we 
satisfy  the  human  demand  of  '^contrast." 

First  let  us  agree  upon  the  definition  of  the  word 
* '  composition, ' '  calling  it,  if  you  will,  the  art  of  form- 
ing a  whole,  by  uniting  different  parts. 

According  to  Webster,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  fine  arts,  it  is  ''The  art,  or  practice,  of  so  com- 
bining the  different  parts  of  a  work  of  art,  as  to  pro- 
duce a  harmonious  whole."  G.  Baldwin  Brown  in 
"The  Fine  Arts'*  says:*  "It  is  the  first  essential  in 

*  G.  Baldwin  Brown,  "The  Fine  Arts,"  Scribner,  1896,  p.  114. 


42  THE    PEINCIPLES    OF    COMPOSITION. 

a  work  of  art,  that  it  should  present  itself  as  a  unity, 
and  not  a  mere  formless  mass  of  indefinite  exten- 
sion." Thus  the  cornice  of  an  elevation  like  the 
cadence  in  music,  is  an  element  which  crowns  or 
limits  the  work.  Moreover,  in  a  composition,  since 
the  different  parts  must  unite,  harmonize,  there  must 
be  no  inharmonious  or  foreign  elements. 

There  may  be  uninteresting  compositions  that  con- 
tain no  inharmonious  elements,  and  this  because  of 
monotony  in  the  arrangement,  or  as  a  result  of  the 
whole  composition  being  of  equal,  or  like  interest. 

That  a  composition  may  be  interesting,  then,  it 
must  always  contain  unlike  points  of  interest. 

But  if  these  different  points  of  interest,  or  focal 
points,  attract  the  attention  equally,  there  will  again 
result  a  diffusion  of  the  perceptions  of  the  observer. 
Therefore  there  must  be  a  studied  gradation  in  the 
different  points  of  interest;  and,  recurring  to  our 
definition — they,  in  turn,  must  harmonize  or  unite 
with  each  other. 

Last  of  all,  if  there  is  to  be  a  gradation  in  the 
amount  of  interest  the  different  points  possess,  there 
will  inevitably  be  a  principal  point  of  interest. 

To  enounce  all  of  this  in  definitely  stated  laws: 
In  a  composition, 

1.  The  interest  must  be  focalized,  and  have  its  most 
potent  expression  in  one  point.  (This  point  we  shall 
call  the  climax.) 

2.  The  number  of  secondary  focal  points  must  be 
reduced  to  minimum;  where  such  points  exist  they 
must  be  conceived  primarily  in  regard  to  the  climax 


STATED   LAWS. 


43 


and  in  their  comparative  importance  must  work  up 
to  it. 

3.  Of  the  different  minor  elements  of  the  composi- 
tion each,  perhaps,  relating  to  its  own  especial  focal 
point,  must  still  feel  the  influence  of  the  climax. 

4.  In  a  pictorial  composition  the  different  elements 
must  balance  in  such  a  manner  that  the  average  of 
interest  will  fall  in  the  middle  of  the  frame.  In  the 
other  visual  arts,  balance  in  relation  to  the  center  of 
gravity  must  be  observed. 

5.  That  the  different  elements  of  a  composition, 
climax,  secondary  climaxes,  and  sub-motives,  may 
attain  to  the  highest  interest,  they  must  contrast  one 
with  the  other. 

6.  That  unity  exist  in  the  composition,  the  laws  of 
harmony  must  be  observed;  and  no  foreign  element 
introduced. 

The  general  result  of  the  first  of  these  laws  is,  evi- 
dently, that: 

(a)  The  climax  must  be  the  most  interesting 
motive  of  the  composition. 

For  example,  one  would  avoid  placing  an  unimpor- 
tant diamond-pointed  block  in  a  surrounding  circle 
of  cupids;  if  there  is  a  difference  of  material,  the 
principal  motive  should  be  of  the  more  precious;  if 
there  are  differences  of  projection,  the  principal 
motive  should  have  the  most  pronounced  one ;  if  there 
are  differences  of  color,  the  most  striking  should  be 
for  the  climax,  and  so  on. 

(b)  The  climax  must  have  the  most  important 
position. 


44  THE   PRINCIPLES   OP   COMPOSITION. 

In  a  composition  wMcli  is  to  be  appreciated  in 
sequence,  this  position  is  at  the  end ;  as,  for  instance, 
in  a  drama,  an  opera,  or  a  succession  of  pictures. 
How  our  perceptions  are  sated  by  the  repetition,  in 
like  degree,  of  a  sensation,  is  too  well  known— we  are 
too  familiar  with  the  trick  of  taking  a  pinch  of  salt 
after  pudding,  in  order  that  we  may  find  sweetness 
in  an  orange— to  make  a  long  discussion  of  this 
statement  necessary. 

In  a  composition  to  be  apprehended  by  a  single 
glance,  the  principal  motive  should  be  placed  where 
the  eye  will  most  readily  find  it,  not  too  near  the  edge 
of  the  composition.  If  the  climax  is  near  the  edge 
of  the  composition,  the  preponderance  of  interest 
there  will  become  so  great  that  it  will  be  difficult  to 
carry  out  the  fourth  law.  A  picture  or  a  building 
would  enter  the  category  of  works  of  art  to  be  seen 
in  a  single  glance.  The  statue  is  an  admissible  ex- 
ception (as  most  designs  where  silhouette  is  of  great 
importance,  the  crowning  climax  being  approached 
in  sequence),  because  we  are  so  used  to  looking  to 
the  head  for  the  chief  expression  as  to  experience  no 
difficulty  in  finding  it  there. 

The  first  law  (also  the  second  and  third)  is  subject 
to  the  fifth  and  sixth  laws,  of  ''Contrast"  and 
''Unity."  An  interesting  piece  of  decoration  is 
most  striking  surrounded  by  a  blank  wall,  and  must 
be  of  the  same  family  as  the  rest  of  the  composition. 

The  need  of  a  close  observance  of  the  second  law 
is  evident,  since  each  secondary  focal  point  neces- 
sarily detracts  somewhat  from  the  importance  of  the 


STATED    LAWS.  45 

climax.  In  a  small  composition,  these  secondary 
points  may  be  entirely  eliminated.  As  to  the  inter- 
relation of  the  climax  and  lesser  elements,  Lehman,* 
quoting  Fechner's  '^Prinzip  der  asthetischen 
Folge"t  and  ''Prinzip  der  asthetischen  Versohn- 
ung,":}:  states  the  two  following  laws:  ''Wenn  zwei 
oder  mehr  entweder  lust-  oder  unlustbetonte,  gleich- 
artige  Vorstellungen,  die  nur  in  betreff  der  Starke 
ihrer  Gefiihlstone  verschieden  sind,  aufeinander 
f  olgen,  so  wird  die  resultierende  Summe  der  Lust  oder 
Unlust  verschieden  werden,  je  nachdem  schwachere 
Lust  oder  Unlust  einer  starkeren  vorausgeht  oder 
umgekehrt.  Und  naher  bestimmt  wird  der  Unter- 
schied  der  Gefiihlssumme  der,  dass  die  moglichst 
grosse  Lust  oder  die  moglichst  geringe  Unlust,  die 
unter  den  gegebenen  Umstanden  zu  erreichen  ist, 
durch  eine  Bewegung  in  positiver  Richtung,  d.  h. 
von  der  starkeren  zur  schwacheren  Unlust  oder  von 
der  schwacheren  zur  starkeren  Lust,  entsteht;  umge- 
kehrt wird  die  wenigste  Lust  oder  die  grosste  Unlust 
durch  eine  Bewegung  in  negativer  Richtung  ent- 
stehen,  eine  Bewegung  also  von  der  starkeren  Lust 
zur  schwacheren,  von  der  schwacheren  Unlust  zur 
starkeren."  "Das  Versohnungsgesetz :  Wenn  zwei 
oder  mehr  teils  lust-  teils  unlustbetonte  gleichartige 
Vorstellungen,  nur  hinsichtlich  der  Starke  ihrer 
Gefiihlstone  verschieden,  aufeinander  folgen,  so  wird 
die  nach  den  Umstanden  moglichst  grosse  Lust  oder 

•  "  Die  Hauptgesetze  des  Menschlichen   Gef  iihlslebens,"   pp.   207 
and  210. 

t  "  Vorschule  der  Aesthetik,"  II.,  p.  234. 
t  Ibid.,  II.,  p.  238. 


46  THE   PRINCIPLES   OF    COMPOSITION. 

moglichst  geringe  Unlust  dadurch  erreicht  werden, 
dass  die  Bewegung  als  Totalitat  in  positiver  Richtung 
geht,  und  die  moglichst  geringe  Lust  oder  die 
moglichst  grosse  Unlust  entsteht,  wenn  die  Bewegung 
als  Totalitat  in  negativer  Richtung  geht." 

Thus  the  first  of  these  laws  tell  us  that  where  the 
elements  are  either  all  pleasant  or  unpleasant,  in 
order  to  obtain  the  greatest  enjoyment  or  the  least 
distress  each  element  must  be  more  pleasing  or  less 
displeasing  than  its  predecessor  in  suite.  Explain- 
ing the  second  of  the  laws,*  Lehman  gives  the  ex- 
ample of  a  suite  of  unpleasant  sensations  and  one 
pleasant  sensation.  To  obtain  the  greatest  delight 
the  unpleasant  sensations  must  precede  the  pleasant 
one.  The  suite  of  unpleasant  sensations  may  how- 
ever progress  from  the  most  unpleasant  to  the  least 
so,  finally  reaching  the  climax  in  the  pleasant  ending ; 
or  it  may  progress  from  the  least  unpleasant  to  the 
most  so,  what  is  thus  lost  being  made  up  for  by  the 
intensified  contrast  when  the  pleasant  sensation  is 
brought  in.  Lehman  says  either  method  gives  about 
the  same  degree  of  pleasure  in  the  end. 

The  reasons  for  the  second  clause  of  the  second 
law,  and  for  the  third  law  are  obvious.  Every  effort 
must  be  made  to  give  importance  to  the  principal 
motive.  In  other  words,  in  a  strong  composition, 
one  of  the  chief  missions  of  the  secondary  motives 
is  to  make  compensation  for  their  existence,  by  abso^ 
lute  conformity  to  the  characteristics  evinced  in  the 
climax. 


Die  Hauptgesetze  des  Menschlichen  Geflihlslebens,"  p.  211. 


STATED    LAWS.  47 

From  the  point  of  view  of  form :  two  lines  compose 
one  with  the  other  when  the  first  leads  into,  and  con- 
tinues; or  when  the  first  is  perpendicular  to  the 
second.  In  this  latter  case  the  lines  also  give  con- 
trast. 

Balance  is  a  popular  word;  yet  our  fourth  law  is 
often  violated  where  one  would  least  expect  to  find  it 
so.  If  one  does  not  wish  to  feel  that  a  pictorial  sub- 
ject has  been  badly  placed  in  its  frame,  where  a 
weight  of  interest  exists  on  the  right,  or  above,  a  bal- 
ancing weight  of  interest  must  be  placed  on  the  left, 
or  below.  Between  two  such  masses,  if  one  is  more 
concentrated  and  powerful  than  the  other,  the 
stronger  is  kept  farther  from  the  edge  of  the  compo- 
sition. 

The  need  of  contrasts  in  the  elements  of  a  composi- 
tion results  from  the  fatigue  which  the  human  mind 
sustains  in  a  monotonous  repetition,  and  in  the  desire 
it  has  for  the  excitement  of  change.  Moreover,  con- 
trasts intensify  the  effect  of  the  motives  that  produce 
them. 

How  distressing  is  the  even  repetition  of  notes,  by 
means  of  which  an  ardent  student  of  music  in  the  next 
apartment  is  driving  you  to  distraction.  How  unin- 
teresting, by  itself,  would  be  the  recitative  of  an 
opera,  which,  however,  in  the  composition,  you  wel- 
come as  a  relief  after  a  moving  solo  or  duet  I 

The  single  principal  motive  will  show,  in  contrast 
to  a  series;  in  line,  one  line  is  brought  out  by  being 
made  perpendicular  to  its  fellow;  a  wide  space  is 
intensified  by  an  accompanying  narrow  one;  a  dark 


48  THE   PRINCIPLES   OF   COMPOSITION. 

space  is  given  interest  by  a  light  one  next ;  one  color 

shows  forth,  a  striking  contrast  to  its  complement. 

The  sixth  law  of  Unity  embraces  four  distinct  and 

very  important  heads,  which  we  may  call  as  follows, 

the  laws  of  harmony,  viz :  Character,  style,  color  and 

scale. 

(a)  Unity  of  Character. 

In  the  general  discussion  of  character  it  was  de- 
termined a  building  must  express  both  the  personality 
of  the  artist  and  the  use  for  which  created.  It  seems 
almost  superfluous  to  add  what  is  so  evident,  that 
each  part  of  the  building  should  express  the  same 
thing;  yet  herein  is  an  error  often  committed. 

An  artist  may  begin  the  composition  of  his  building 
with  the  firm  intention  of  carrying  out  a  certain  im- 
pressive feeling,  but  later  on,  becoming  interested  in 
a  detail,  he  evolves  a  motive  entirely  out  of  keeping 
with  the  rest  of  his  design.  It  often  happens,  too, 
that  different  parts  of  a  composition  are  for  unlike 
uses,  and  must,  despite  the  fact  that  they  belong  to  the 
same  ensemble,  show  distinct  individuality.  The  Art 
Building  and  Machinery  Hall  of  a  World's  Fair 
would  exemplify  this.  Here  unity  would  be  attained 
by  mailing  all  the  buildings  of  the  fair  in  keeping  with 
the  idea  of  the  progress  of  the  world  and  illustrative 
of  the  temporariness  of  that  to  be  used  for  only  a 
limited  space  of  time. 

(b)  Unity  of  Style. 

Style  is  the  imprint  a  particular  epoch  makes  on 
art. 


UNITY    OF  STYLE.  49 

If  then,  the  elements  of  one  style  are  introduced  in 
the  expression  of  a  different  one,  discord  will  evi- 
dently result.  We  might  call  this  a  fault  of  char- 
acter, for  such  an  element  bears  the  mark  of  the  char- 
acteristics of  its  age,  entirely  foreign  to  that  of 
another  age.  Thus  an  Egyptian  column  in  a  Renais- 
sance ball  room,  or  a  Renaissance  motive  in  a  Gothic 
church,  will  always  be  as  oil  and  water  to  each  other. 

I  do  not  mean  by  this  that  an  architect  may  not 
unite  in  the  same  composition  motives  inspired  from 
different  styles,  provided  he  does  it  logically.  The 
artist  will  then  stamp  each  element  with  his  own  mod- 
ern personality,  so  that,  although  the  ideas  of  form 
have  been  suggested  by  unlike  archaeological  ex- 
amples, the  final  results,  all  showing  the  feeling  of  the 
present  time,  will  actually  be  of  the  same  style,  a 
modem  one.  This  is  the  application  which  we  may 
make  of  a  study  of  stj^le.  As  Henri  Mayeux  says:* 
* '  Le  style,  que  1  'on  conf ond  souvent  avec  le  caractere, 
est  le  cachet,  la  marque  speciale  des  oeuvres  d'un  pays 
ou  d'une  epopue:  chercher  a  faire  revivre  celui  d'un 
siecle  passe,  c'est  necessairement  le  deflorer;  on  n'est 
plus  dans  les  conditions  voulues  de  temps  et  de  milieu, 
et  de  I'imitation  on  ne  tarde  pas  a  tomber  dans  la 
pastiche.  L 'etude  des  styles,  excellente  pour  1 'edu- 
cation de  1 'artiste  qui  s'instruit  en  comparant,  ne 
pent  servir,  si  on  s 'aviso  de  lui  demander  da  vantage, 
qu'a  etouffer  dans  leur  germe  tout  art  et  tout 
originalite. ' ' 


*  Henri  Mayeux,  "  La  Composition  D^orative,"  p.  176. 


50  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    COMPOSITION. 

(c)  Unity    of    Color. 

This  is  a  need,  though  commonly  felt,  most  difficult 
of  analysis.  There  must  be  no  discord  in  the  com- 
bination of  colors  used.  And  yet,  what  rule  is  there 
by  which  the  discord  may  be  avoided,  the  unity 
retained? 

A  musician  will  hand  you  a  work  on  "harmony" 
where  you  may  find  catalogued  all  the  possible  faults, 
and  see  the  agreeable  sequences  set  forth;  you  may 
carry  this  book  to  a  physicist,  who  will  analyze  each 
rule  and  tell  you  ''why." 

But  no  physicist  has  yet  informed  us  why  most 
forms  of  red  and  blue  will  not  harmonize,  except  by 
the  vague,  negative  announcement  that  "complemen- 
tary colors  go  together."  (Pure  red  and  blue  are  not 
complementary.)  The  whole  must  really  be  a  subtle 
expression  of  the  artist  himself. 

We  may  make  a  few  deductions  from  nature;  and 
after  suggesting  these,  with  a  word  of  warning  about 
complementary  colors,  leave  the  subject. 

It  is  a  recognized  fact  that  all  colors  harmonize 
out  of  doors,  provided  they  are  at  a  distance,  or  have 
the  sun  on  them.  In  each  case  the  reason  is  a  like 
one;  at  a  distance,  the  atmosphere  creates  a  tone 
which  mingles  with  the  diiferent  colors,  bringing 
them  together;  in  the  sunlight,  the  brilliant  warm 
rays  (they  are  warm  or  pinkish,  probably,  from  the 
refraction  of  the  atmosphere,  an  accentuation  of  this 
being  observable  at  sunset  or  sunrise)  make  a  similar 
tone,  which  enters  into  the  composition  of  all  local 
color.     In  the  case  of  the  sunlight,  it  may  be  possible 


UNITY    OF  COLOK.  51 

that  the  eye  is  made  less  perceptive  of  differences 
in  color,  by  the  brilliancy  of  the  light  and  the  after 
images  created. 

This  suggests  a  first  rule:  any  number  of  colors 
will  harmonize,  provided  each  has  in  its  composition 
a  common  one,  which  may  be  called  the  tone.*  The 
tone,  if  pure  and  brilliant,  must  not  overpower  the 
local  color,  or  assert  itself  as  such ;  and  if  gray,  must 
not  make  the  local  color  ''dirty." 

It  has  long  been  known  that  two  complementary 
colors  harmonize.  They  do  so  in  one  of  two  ways. 
If  both  are  pure  and  brilliant,  the  result  will  be 
garish,  barbaric.  If  one  is  dull  and  dark,  the  other 
pure  and  brilliant,  the  combination  will  be  more 
subtle,  and  to  the  modem  taste,  more  agreeable. 

In  general,  three  or  more  colors  which  combine  to- 
gether (when  being  rotated  on  a  wheel)  and  form 
white  in  certain  proportions,  will,  in  the  same  propor- 
tions, be  agreeable  in  juxtaposition. 

Lastly,  any  colors  broken  up  in  small  enough  spaces 
(as  a  mosaic)  to  form,  in  a  measure,  a  tone  will  be 
agreeable,  provided  the  tone  is  not  itself  dirty,  or 
disagreeable. 

Practically,  the  way  to  avoid  discords  in  designing 
is  to  come  back,  fresh,  to  a  study  that  has  been  put 
aside,  and  eliminate  any  dissonant  note  the  first 
glance  detects. 

*  What  is  meant  here  is  the  combination  of  the  eflfect  of  a  tone- 
pigment  with  that  of  other  pigments  representing  local  color.  The 
result  must  be  that  given  by  the  blending  of  the  colors  on  a  rotating 
wheel;  as  when  two  pigments  are  very  thoroughly  mixed,  before 
application,  the  mixture  does  not  give  the  effect  of  the  union  of  un- 
mixed color. 


52  THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    COMPOSITION. 

(d)  Unity  of  Scale. 

In  the  visible  arts,  ''scale"  is  that  aspect  of  a 
motive  which,  irrespective  of  the  actual  size  of  the 
motive,  suggests  dimensions  for  it.* 

Our  impression  of  scale  in  a  motive  comes  from 
seeing  certain  elements  always  made  (for  logical 
reason  or  custom)  of  definitely  appointed  sizes. 
Thus,  seeing  the  drawing  of  such  an  element,  and 
having  in  mind  its  real  dimensions,  we  form  an  idea 
of  the  proportion  that  exists  between  the  drawing 
and  nature ;  in  other  words,  receive  an  impression  of 
the  numerical  scale  (one-eighth,  one-fourth  or  one- 
half  an  inch  to  the  foot)  at  which  the  drawing  is 
made.  Also,  especially  after  one  has  become  used 
to  working  at  any  of  these  numerical  scales,  through 
appreciating  that  a  certain  known  object  in  nature 
is  of  a  relative  known  size  in  a  drawing,  from  the 
size  of  another  new  object  in  the  same  drawing,  one 
may  form  a  correct  idea  of  the  real  size  of  the  latter 
in  nature. 

Appreciating  this,  we  may  formulate  the  two  con- 
ditions on  which  is  based  unity  of  scale. 

I.  In  a  drawing  the  different  elements  should  all 
seem  to  be  depicted  at  the  same  numerical  scale. 

II.  The  general  aspect  of  scale  (not  numerical 
scale)  of  the  composition  should  be  in  accord  with 
nature;    or,  taking  into  consideration  the  numerical 


*  The  term  "  scale,"  when  used  in  this  sense,  is  entirely  different 
in  meaning  from  the  like  word  (which  I  shall  call  "numerical 
scale")  in  such  a  sentence  as:  "The  scale  of  %  of  an  inch  to  the 
foot."    The  latter  is  merely  the  name  of  a  comparative  measure. 


UNITY    OF    SCALE.  53 

scale  of  a  drawing,  the  design  once  executed  should 
be  in  accord  with  nature. 

A  motive,  or  the  drawing  of  a  motive,  complying 
with  these  laws  is  said  to  be  ' '  in  good  scale  "  or  "  good 
in  scale. ' ' 

A  drawing  is  ''small  in  scale"  when  it  seems  to  be 
shown  at  a  smaller  numerical  scale  than  the  one  used 
(one-eighth  perhaps  instead  of  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
to  the  foot).  The  realization  of  such  a  drawing 
would  have  smaller  actual  dimensions  than  those  sug- 
gested, or  inversely,  from  the  delineation  of  a  motive 
that  is  small  in  scale  one  would  be  led  to  expect  a 
much  larger  realization  than  the  actual  one. 

A  motive  is  "small  in  scale"  when  its  elements  are 
smaller  than  they  should  be ;  when  it  looks  the  dimin- 
ished counterpart  of  an  object  of  the  normal  world; 
when  it  seems  created  for  the  use  of  dwarfs  or  dolls, 
rather  then  men. 

To  make  a  drawing  or  motive  small  in  scale  is  the 
most  distressing  manner  of  transgressing  the  laws  of 
scale.  It  implies  an  effeminate  temperament  in  the 
finished  artist,  and  must  be  guarded  against  by  the 
student.  In  his  early  studies  he  will  be  tempted  to 
smallness  by  an  almost  universally  experienced  tend- 
ency to  over-multiply  the  number  of  elements  in  his 
compositions. 

A  drawing  is  "large"  or  "big  in  scale"  when  it 
seems  to  be  shown  at  a  larger  numerical  scale  than 
it  is  actually  drawn  to.  The  realization  of  such  a 
drawing  would  have  larger  actual  dimensions  than 
those  suggested. 


54  THE    PEINCIPLES   OF    COMPOSITION. 

A  motive  is  large  in  scale  when  it  seems  to  be  con- 
structed for  beings  of  a  greater  stature  than  that  of 
man. 

The  fault  of  bigness  of  scale  is  less  unfortunate 
than  that  of  smallness  of  scale.  It  implies  a  certain 
robustness  of  temperament,  a  male  strength  of  char- 
acter in  the  artist  that  we  unconsciously  admire ;  and, 
provided  the  relation  between  nature  and  the  compo- 
sition can  be  established,  the  actual  dimensions  of  the 
building,  let  us  say,  made  apparent,  the  beholder  is 
impressed  with  a  sense  of  awe,  feeling  himself  before 
a  building  made  for  something  more  than  puny 
human  needs. 

A  composition  large  in  scale  takes  precedence  over 
surrounding  or  accompanying  compositions,  and 
acquires  the  characteristics  which  we  denominate  as 
monumental  (see  pages  21  and  22).  In  an  exhibition 
of  drawings,  the  one  slightly  larger  in  scale  than 
those  about,  other  things  being  equal,  will  make  a 
better  impression,  and  in  any  case  "carry"  better 
than  its  fellows. 

The  dangers  of  bigness  of  scale  are  two-fold:  it 
is  often  difficult  to  make  evident  the  relation  nature 
bears  to  the  composition,  and  there  usually  results 
grossness  and  want  of  refinement  in  the  design.  The 
first  of  these  errors  is  noticeable  in  the  interior  of  St. 
Peter's  of  Rome ;  it  takes  the  beholder  half  an  hour  to 
realize  the  enormous  size  of  the  monument,  and  as  a 
result  he  never  experiences  the  full  impression  which 
should  be  his.  An  example  of  the  second  fault  is 
furnished,  to  some  extent,  by  the  detail  of  the  Paris 


KEQUIREMENTS    OF  GOOD    SCALE.  55 

Opera  House,  a  masterpiece  whose  wonderful  qual- 
ities of  brilliancy  and  strong  composition  make  us 
regret  all  the  more  poignantly  a  certain  suggestion  of 
heavy  and  vulgar  display. 

An  impression  of  largeness  of  scale  may  be  actu- 
ally sought  for  a  tomb  or  other  similar  composition, 
the  requirement  being  that  the  comparative  scale  of 
nature  be  made  evident. 

That  an  object  ''has  no  scale"  implies  there  is  no 
means  of  determining  from  its  aspect  the  relative 
scale  of  nature.  This  is  most  faulty  in  a  complete 
composition,  although  a  few  elements  usually  having 
no  scale  (such  as  the  classic  column)  are  of  so  estab- 
lished a  use  that  they  have  become  admissible. 

Requieements   of    Good    Scale.* 

There  are  four  requirements  to  be  observed  in 
order  that  good  scale  may  be  retained:  (1)  the  re- 
quirement of  human  needs;  (2)  the  requirement  of 
material  elements;  (3)  the  requirement  of  natural 
relative  proportion;  (4)  the  requirement  of  the  vis- 
ual distance  as  governed  by  the  ensemble. 

1.  The  Requirement  of  Human  Needs. 
Nearly  all  objects  have  a  distinct  relation  to  our 
physical  wants,  and,  such  a  relation  existing,  must 
be  carefully  respected.  A  step  is  cut  for  the  prac- 
tical purpose  of  making  an  ascent  easy;  therefore 
the  proper  height  of  the  step  is  that  the  average  man 

*  See  also  Mayeux,  "  La  Composition  Decorative,"  pp.  106  to  125. 
M.  Mayeux  makes  a  division  which  I  have  not  followed  exactly,  but 
the  general  suggestions  are  practically  the  same. 


56 


THE   PRINCIPLES   OF   COMPOSITION. 


finds  most  convenient.  Thus  a  certain  unchangeable 
unit,  independent  of  the  scheme  of  decoration,  is  es- 
tablished. 

Other  examples  of  this  are :  the  height  of  a  balus- 
trade ;  the  height  of  a  table ;  of  a  desk ;  of  book  cases, 
the  size  of  a  bed;  the  spacing  of  bars  in  a  grille  or 
grating,  etc.  It  results  that  in  a  composition  such 
elements  may  express  and  establish  the  actual  size  of 
the  whole  design.  The  two  doors  with  their  flights 
of  steps  (Fig.  1)  will  illustrate  this  from  the  archi- 


FlG.    1. 

tectural  point  of  view,  while  a  less  architectural  ex- 
ample is  given  by  the  contrast  between  the  two  bells 
shown  (Fig.  2). 

From  this  principle  we  may  deduce  a  method  of 
testing  the  scale  of  an  architectural  composition. 
First,  taking  only  into  consideration  the  general 
aspect  of  the  design,  let  us  draw  a  man,  making  him 


REQUIREMENTS   OF  GOOD   SCALE. 


57 


as  tall,  in  relation  to  the  building  or  monument,  as 
seems  proper.  Then,  let  us  measure  his  height:  if 
six  feet,  we  may  feel  satisfied  that  our  building  is  in 
good  scale ;  if  ten  or  twelve  feet,  we  know  the  compo- 
sition is  too  big  in  scale  and  must  re-study;  if  the 
figure  proves  but  three  or  four  feet  high,  we  must 


Fig.  2. 

confess  our  monument  small  in  scale,  and  should  best 
rub  it  out  and  begin  anew. 

Moreover,  on  drawing  out,  at  its  proper  size,  an 
element  which  has  a  practical  use,  if  we  imagine  it 
too  large  in  proportion  to  the  rest  of  the  composition 
—if  what  we  have  just  drawn  in  proper  scale  seems 
out  of  scale— we  are  thereby  informed  that,  in  reality, 
the  whole  design  is  small  in  scale. 

2.  The  Requirement  of  Material  Elements, 
(a)  The  dimensions  of  materials  may  determine  the 
size  of  a  composition  in  which  the  materials  appear. 
Some  of  these  dimensions  are  absolute ;  some  derived 
from  custom.  Thus  the  size  of  slate  in  a  roof  is  de- 
rived from  material  limitations;    bricks,  tiles,  etc., 


58 


THE   PRINCIPLES   OF    COMPOSITION. 


are  usually  made  of  a  certain  size  because  of  prac- 
tical considerations,  while  the  arbitrary  height  of  the 
courses,  fourteen  or  fifteen  inches  in  rusticated  stone 
work,  is  often  so  remotely  connected  with  actual 
dimensions  necessity  prescribes  that  we  must  admit 


^»XV  IllltllfifUl; 

tl\ir,  iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


iiin  III!  Kill  imiii 
iiiiliimiiiiimii 
{iii{iiiiiiiiiiimi| 

riHlllllJIlliiiitin 

|iHi!|]ltillHIIIUI| 


^S 


Fig.  3. 

the  requirement,  though  irrefragable,  to  be  one  of 
custom.* 

(b)  The  requirements  of  construction  may  also  de- 
termine the  size  of  a  motive,  or  at  least  suggest  rela- 
tive sizes  for  motives  of  unlike  construction.  A  stone 
arcade  may  have  three  points  of  support  to  one  of  the 
steel  and  glass  marquise  before  it  (Fig.  3) ;  a  large 
bay  will  be  closed  by  a  fixed  frame,  while  one  of  lesser 
dimensions  may  be  an  ordinary  casement  window 
(Fig.  4).    A  very  usual  stumbling  block  to  the  begin- 


*  I  am  here  referring  to  the  regular  rustications  of  later  Renais- 
sance and  modern  work;  not,  of  course,  to  the  Florentine  or 
Eomanesque  work,  etc.,  or  to  the  styles  derived  therefrom. 


REQUIREMENTS    OF    GOOD    SCALE. 


59 


ner  is  the  comparison  of  scale  that  exists  between 
different  forms  of  bays. 

It  is  a  fact  that  in  the  same  composition  bays  con- 
structed of  the  same  material,  but  of  different  forms, 
should,  in  order  that  unity  of  scale  may  be  preserved, 
have  correspondingly  different  spans.  There  is  a 
nice  balancing  of  two  principles,  which  probably  fur- 
nishes the  reason  for  this.  We  know  that  a  flat  arch 
will  span  a  greater  distance  than  a  lintel  can,  and  a 


Fig.  4. 

semi-circular  arch  a  still  greater  distance.  Moreover, 
the  thrust  of  a  flat  arch  makes  it  less  appropriate  for 
a  wide  span  than  a  semi-circular  arch  would  be.  As 
a  result  of  this,  we  are  accustomed  to  see  semi-circular 
arches  used  to  cover  great  distances,  and  therefore 
feel  that  they  have  more  scale  than  flat  arches  or 
lintels  (Fig.  5). 

But,  a  fortiori,  it  might  be  urged  that  the  pointed 
arch,  giving  less  thrust  than  the  semi-circular,  or 
segmental  arch,  must  have  the  greatest  scale ;  whereas 
this  is  not  the  case. 


60 


THE   PKINCIPLES   OF   COMPOSITION. 


When  we  remember  that  the  thrust  of  an  arch  may 
not  be  the  only  requirement  limiting  its  application, 
but  that  its  adaptability  must  also  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration, we  shall  understand  this.  Given  the  form 
of  an  arch,  the  span,  unluckily,  governs  the  rise,  so 
that,  for  very  wide  spans,  the  pointed  arch,  necessi- 


FiG.  5. 


tating  too  great  height,  becomes  impossible.  And  so, 
within  certain  limits  laid  down  by  the  aforesaid  bal- 
ance of  these  considerations,  the  broader  of  two  semi- 
circular arches  (as  in  Fig.  5),  will  usually  have  the 
greater  scale. 

Care  must  be  taken  that,  whenever  a  comparison 
between  a  square  and  circular  opening  occurs,  the 
circular  opening  is  the  wider. 

A  Palladian  motive  whose  square  bays  are  too 
nearly  equal  to  the  circular  one  is  most  distressing, 
and  the  common  use  of  this  motive,  in  our  modern 
Colonial  architecture,  where  the  central  circular 
opening  is  no  wider  than  square-headed  windows  in 
other  parts  of  the  design,  is  decidedly  faulty. 

An  apparent  exception  to  the  above  rules  is  the  cir- 
cular opening  placed  over  a  square  one  of  the  same 


REQUIREMENTS   OF  GOOD   SCALE. 


61 


width.    Here,  however,  the  sides  of  the  upper  win- 
dows should  carry  down 
to  the  lower,  making  in 
reality  only  one  bay  (Fig. 

6). 

As  a  last  caution,  it  is 
unwise  to  make  an  arch 
within  an  intercolumnia- 
tion  where  the  columns 
project  much  from  the 
wall.  Such  a  combina- 
tion is  only  good  when 
the  entablature  of  the 
colonnade  is  evidently 
one  with  the  wall  of  the 
arcade,  showing  that,  al- 
though it  may  have  a  flat 
arch  construction  of  its 
own,  it  also  derives  sup- 
port from  the  circular 
arch  below.  If  the  two 
elements  seem  indepen- 
dent of  each  other,  the 
wide  square  opening  will  appear  out  of  scale  with 
the  narrow  arched  one  (Fig.  7). 

3.  The  Requirement  of  Natural  Relative  Proportion. 

In  an  element,  or  in  similar  elements  of  a  composi- 
tion, that  unity  of  scale  may  be  retained,  figures,  ani- 
mals, flowers,  plants,  instruments,  and  other  decora- 
tive objects,  must  be  depicted  in  their  natural  relative 
sizes. 


Fig.  6. 


62 


THE    PRINCIPLES   OF    COMPOSITION. 


In  other  words,  a  terrified  damsel  must  not  be 
shown  fearfully  contemplating  her  instant  death  at 
the  paws  of  a  toy  lion.  If  there  is  not  space  in  a  com- 
position to  introduce  a  second,  full-sized  human  fig- 
ure, a  baby,  rather  than  a  reduced  man,  should  be 
shown. 

It  is  well  to  preserve  the  same  numerical  unit  of 
scale  in  all  elements  of  one  design ;  but,  under  certain 


|-» 


Fig.  7. 

conditions,  the  opposite  of  this  is  true.  There  are 
even  exceptions,  where  single  elements  must  have 
details  of  individual  scale. 

We  shall  take  up  the  several  cases  successively. 

There  may  be  a  difference  in  the  general  numerical 
scales  of  two  or  more  elements  of  the  same  composi- 


BEQUIBEMENTS   OF  GOOD   SCALE.  63 

tion,  provided :  (a)  the  elements  are  unlike  in  essence, 
and  are  in  separate  compartments  or  divisions— the 
central  motive  of  a  tapestry,  or  painting,  might  have 
an  entirely  different  unit  of  scale  from  the  border ;  or, 
again,  the  scale  of  the  vertical  supports  of  a  piece  of 
furniture  may  not  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  panels 
or  doors  between  them;  while  the  decoration  of  the 
shaft  of  a  column  would  be  different  in  scale  from 
that  of  the  wall  in  the  intercolumniation ;  {b)  the  ele- 
ments have  a  different  expression— one  is  a  bas- 
relief,  while  the  other  is  in  decided  projection,  or  one 
is  monochrome,  the  other  in  color;  (c)  the  elements 
are  of  different  materials— the  bronze  handles  and 
stand  of  a  vase  might  be  at  another  scale  than  the 
faience,  or  a  bit  of  carved  ivory  different  from  the 
wood  carving  next  to  it;  (d)  one  of  the  elements  is 
conventionalized,  while  the  other  is  not,  as  in  the  cen- 
tral motive  of  a  tapestry  or  decoration,  where  a  sub- 
ject, represented  in  a  natural  manner,  may  be  sur- 
rounded by  a  conventional  design  (see  Fig.  33,  e) ; 
also  busts,  termini,  masks,  lions  or  goats'  heads, 
chimeres,  finials,  rosettes,  etc.,  as  accessories,  would 
come  under  this  head.  But  in  all  of  these  cases  a 
certain  condition  must  be  observed,  viz :  as  the  scale 
diminishes,  the  detail  must  be  simplified.  Figure  8, 
showing  the  well-known  Henry  II.  chimney  piece 
from  the  ' '  Chateau  de  Villeroy, "  is  an  excellent  ex- 
ample of  several  of  the  above  cases. 

The  law  just  expressed,  i.  e.,  that  as  scale  dimin- 
ishes, detail  must  be  simplified  is  exceedingly  impor- 
tant, for  only  by  its  observance  are  the  exceptions 
spoken  of  farther  back  made  possible. 


64 


THE   PRINCIPLES   OF   COMPOSITION. 


HENRY   II.   CHIMNEY-PIECE   OR    THE    CHATEAU  DE  VILLEROY. 

(Now  at  the  Muse6  du  Louvre.) 
Fig.  8. 


REQUIREMENTS   OF  GOOD   SCALE.  65 

There  are  many  objects  that  cannot  be  portrayed 
at  their  real,  or  yet  at  their  natural  relative  sizes, 
such  as  the  sun,  moon  and  stars,  prows  of  vessels, 
masts,  military  emblems,  cannon,  and  in  a  heraldic 
device,  towers  and  other  similar  picturings.  All  of 
these  elements  may  be  used  nevertheless  provided 
the  detail  is  simplified.  It  is  well  to  conventionalize 
such  subjects;  indeed,  only  thus  can  the  sun,  stars, 
etc.,  be  indicated. 

Again  we  see  in  some  of  the  classic  groups  of  sculp- 
ture (the  Laocoon  and  the  group  of  Niobe  are  ex- 
amples cited  by  Mayeux  with  regard  to  this)  the 
principal  figure  made  larger  in  proportion  to  the 
others  than  nature  would  warrant;  now-a-days  al- 
though this  is  done  less  commonly,  in  certain  cases  it 
is  still  useful.  (The  tympanum  of  a  classic  pediment, 
with  the  central  figure  usually  of  heroic  size  as  com- 
pared to  the  others ;  or  a  monumental  statue,  a  smaller 
figure  being  introduced  for  the  interpretation  of  an 
idea,  or  even  merely  to  give  scale.) 

In  all  such  cases  the  same  law  holds  good.  Here 
the  enlarged  figures  must  have  more  detail  given 
them;  the  hem  of  a  robe,  treated  with  brocaded  de- 
signs, perhaps,  or  the  shield  of  a  warrior,  embossed 
with  bas-reliefs.  And  with  regard  to  this  it  may  be 
well  to  remark  that  "detail"  does  not  mean  a  fine,  or 
finically  indicated  portrayal,  for  the  elements  may, 
and  if  the  monument  is  a  large  one  to  be  viewed  from 
a  distance,  should  be  treated  in  the  most  simple  man- 
ner. It  becomes  plain  why  mechanical  reductions 
and  enlargements  are  so  bad.  In  such  reductions  the 
6 


66 


THE   PRINCIPLES   OF    COMPOSITION. 


same  amount  of  detail  is  crowded  into  a  smaller  space. 

If  two  Greek  frets,  of  different  dimensions,  are 
used  in  the  same  composition  the  smaller  must  be  the 
simpler.  If  two  entablatures  are  used  in  a  building 
the  smaller  might  well  be  composed  of  two  members 
—architrave  and  cornice,  say— instead  of  three,  as 
would  be  the  main  entablature. 

In  a  large  composition,  if  a  certain  form,  a  pedi- 
ment perhaps,  has  been  used  in  the  principal  motive, 
we  should  carefully  avoid  repeating  it,  at  a  smaller 
scale,  as  a  sub-motive.  This  extends  to  the  most  in- 
significant elements.     If  dentals  are  indicated  in  a 


Fig.  9. 

main  cornice  they  should  be  omitted  from  a  smaller 
one.  Always  avoid  introducing  a  motive  or  element 
which  may  be  the  baby  of  another.  The  only  exception 
to  this  is  for  graduated  decorations  (see  page  116). 
We  may  also,  inversely,  deduce  from  this  the 
method  of  retaining  the  same  decorative  scale  in  dif- 
ferent portions  of  the  same  suite.  Suppose  several 
panels,  of  individual  lengths  (Fig.  9)  are  to  form  a 
frieze.  In  the  first  of  these  panels  we  introduce  cer- 
tain elements  making  a  complete  design ;  in  the  second 
we  must  not  attempt  to  enlarge  these  elements  to  fill 
the  greater  space,  but  must  use  them  at  their  original 
size,  adding  new  elements  of  like  character  to  com- 


BEQUIBEMENTS   OF  GOOD   SCALE.  67 

plete  the  panel.    In  the  smaller  panels  some  of  the 
elements  are  merely  left  out. 

This  principle,  which  should  extend  throughout 
commercial  art,  is,  unhappily,  but  too  often  ignored. 
Books  of  a  set,  furniture  for  the  same  room ;  in  fact, 
any  group  of  decorative  objects  should  have  common 
elements  of  common  dimensions. 

4.  The  Requirement  of  the  Visual  Distance  as  Gov- 
erned by  the  Ensemble. 

The  detail,  as  well  as  the  general  scheme  of  a  com- 
position, should  be  legible  at  the  distance  from  which 
the  beholder  is  expected  to  view  it. 

This  distance  is  governed  ^\^  \ yC 

by  the  visual  angle  and  by       \ 

the  total  size  of  the  composi-         \ 

tion.     Thus,  in  figure  10,  if        ^,  \ 

EBC^ECB,  d  and  d'  are  de-  \ 

fined  by  the  sizes  of  BEC  and  \ 

BC.      The  scale  of  a  large 

composition     would,     there-  ^^^ 

fore,    be    entirely    diiferent  ^ 

from   that   of   a    small   one 

(BEC  is  really  fixed  in  size,  within  certain  limits) ; 

that  of  a  building  would  be  quite  unlike  that  of  an 

illuminated  manuscript. 

As  an  instance  of  the  kind  of  fault  easily  com- 
mitted :  the  bronze  gentleman  on  the  top  of  the  tower 
of  one  of  our  well-known  public  buildings  holds  a 
carefully  engraved  scroll,  legible  to  nobody,  and  only 
to  be  guessed  at  by  visitors  to  the  roof.    Milan, 


/ 
/ 


/ 
/ 
/ 


68  THE   PRINCIPLES   OF   COMPOSITION. 

Cologne,  the  Certosa  of  Pavia  and  other  such  build- 
ings are  older  examples  of  like  mistakes  of  scale,  the 
detail  being  too  fine  to  be  grasped  from  the  distance 
at  which  the  ensemble  should  be  seen. 

Nice  distinctions  of  scale  may  be  made  by  an  ob- 
servant artist.  In  a  public  hall,  the  rug  to  be  looked 
at  from  the  end  of  the  room  or  from  a  gallery  would 
have  a  much  simpler  and  broader  design  than  would 
that  of  a  lady's  boudoir.  The  decoration  of  a  theater 
would  be  larger  in  scale  than  that  of  a  private  house. 
Also,  the  scale  of  the  decorations  at  the  top  of  a  tall 
building  would,  as  already  suggested  in  discussion  of 
wasted  ornament  (see  page  35),  be  of  a  different 
scale  from  those  at  the  bottom.  Apparently,  the  best 
manner  of  composing  a  twenty-story  office  building  is 
to  place  one  or  two  stories  in  the  entablature,  and  so 
on.  Thus  the  first  and  last  of  the  requirements  for 
good  scale  are  satisfied ;  the  human  unit,  as  evinced 
by  the  windows,  is  retained,  while  the  decorative 
motive  is  made  broad  enough  to  ''carry"  from  a 
great  height. 

It  may  be  well  to  note  in  connection  with  this  that 
architecture,  sculpture,  indeed  any  bit  of  decoration 
appears  smaller  when  placed  out  of  doors  than  it 
actually  is.  Because  of  this,  and  to  make  sure  that 
the  composition  will  ''carry,"  it  is  well  to  keep  the 
detail  of  exterior  work  large  in  scale.  The  usual 
height  of  the  so-called  life-size  statue  is  seven  or 
eight  feet,  according  to  its  placing,  near  or  farther 
from  the  eye. 

As  a  general  resume  of  this  most  important  ques- 


BEQUIREMENTS   OF  GOOD   SCALE.  69 

tion,  ''scale,"  the  elements  of  a  composition  relating 
to  human  needs  or  to  material  requirements,  must  be 
exactly  of  the  size  suited  to  these  requirements;  the 
portrayal  of  natural  objects  must  not  be  in  discord 
with  nature,  while  the  general  decorative  scheme  of 
the  design,  together  with  the  detail  employed,  must 
be  in  harmony  with  the  total  size  and  character  of 
the  whole  composition. 

To  give  scale  to  a  composition,  providing  there  are 
no  faults  to  eliminate : 

1.  Human  elements  may  be  introduced. 

2.  Constructive  elements  may  be  made  more  evi- 
dent. 

3.  A  decorative  portrayal  of  natural  objects,  whose 
scale  is  apparent,  may  be  introduced. 

4.  Sub-motives  may  be  added  to  the  principal  mo- 
tives, to  give  a  comparison. 

5.  The  general  size  of  the  detail  may  be  reduced 
everywhere. 


CHAPTEE  11. 

Before  leaving  the  general  for  the  special  in  taking 
up  different  applications  of  the  foregoing  laws  of 
composition  a  word  may  be  said  about  the  manner  of 
analyzing  a  composition. 

Artists  usually  approach  the  arrangement  of  a  sub- 
ject by  one  of  two  paths.  A  first  class  of  men  work 
synthetically,  showing  a  natural  tendency  to  reason 
about  the  arrangements  which  will  best  suit  the  re- 
quirements of  a  program;  another  class  work  from 
sentiment,  drawing  in  something,  which,  if  it  does 
not  finally  strike  the  right  chord,  is  either  altered  or 
erased. 

As  suggested  in  remarks  at  the  end  of  Part  I.,  the 
method  pursued  by  the  men  who  reason  is  a  sound 
one.  It  is  more  direct  and  sure.  Unluckily,  some 
personal  verve  of  imagination  may  be  lost  by  a  too 
exclusive  adherence  thereto,  for  though  an  artist  is 
an  intellectual  as  well  as  a  sensitive  being,  he  is  not 
a  mathematical  machine.  A  combination  of  both 
methods,  therefore,  is  good. 

In  other  words  (allowance  being  made  for  individu- 
ality of  temperament),  after  the  general  scheme  has 
been  reasoned  out  and  all  logical  needs  observed,  we 
may  permit  ourselves  free  rein  to  fill  the  composition 
with  original  bits,  remembering  simply  that  a  thing's 
being  different  does  not  make  it  personal.  After 
having  put  ourselves  into  the  work  to  the  fullest  ex- 

70 


GENERAL    MASSING    OF    COMPOSITION.  71 

tent  we  must,  however,  return  to  the  first  method, 
analyze  what  lies  before  us  and  show  our  strength  of 
character  by  cutting  out  everything  which  violates 
the  sound  laws  in  which  we  believe. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  second  part  of  * '  The  Fine 
Arts"  G.  Baldwin  Brown  suggests  that  we  see  in 
nature  tones,  textures,  colors,  forms,  and  lines.  In 
viewing  a  particular  object,  from  one  spot,  these  im- 
pressions are  created  by  certain  defined  portions  of 
space,  which  must  in  consequence  have  a  shape. 
These  shapes  either  will  (like  the  oblong)  or  will  not 
(like  the  square)  follow  some  general  line  or  direc- 
tion. Moreover,  if  they  lead  from  one  to  another,  as 
the  laws  of  composition  say  they  sometimes  should, 
a  direction  will  thereby  be  expressed. 

We  may,  then,  study  the  general  massing  of  a  com- 
position, and  the  general  massing  is  what  makes  an 
arrangement  fundamentally  good  or  bad,  without 
regard  to  the  particular  manner— tone,  texture,  color, 
interior  form  of  the  individual  element,  or  simple  out- 
line—in which  its  elements  impress  us,  merely  exam- 
ining or  indicating  the  relative  positions  and  shapes 
of  these  elements,  and  noting  especially  the  contrast 
or  continuity  of  the  directions  to  which  they  conform. 

To  analyze  the  general  masses  of  a  pictorial  com- 
position the  easiest  trick  is  to  put  the  eyes  out  of 
focus.  A  little  practice  in  looking  past  the  object 
one  wishes  to  blur,  and  at  a  distant  object,  will  soon 
make  the  action  almost  unconscious.  Persons  who 
are  far-sighted  need  only  take  off  their  glasses  and 
relax  the  muscles  of  the  eye;  those  who  are  near- 


f 


72  THE   PBINCIPLES   OF   COMPOSITION. 

sighted  have  but  to  stand  away  from  the  drawing. 
Unless  one  is  accustomed  to  looking  through  a  micro- 
scope or  telescope,  it  is  better  to  cover  one  eye ;  other- 
wise one  sees  double. 

The  blurred  shapes  arising  from  this  experiment 
are  the  fundamental  elements  which  must  compose. 
We  shall  pass  in  review  the  different  general  classes 
in  which  they  may  be  grouped.  As  the  comparative 
directions  of  these  motives  are  the  important  factors 
in  their  composition  the  directing  lines  are  usually 
all  that  will  be  considered. 

Usual  Arrangements  of  Pictorial  Compositions. 

The  laws  of  composition  tell  us*  that  the  more  we 
reduce  the  number  of  secondary  focal  points  in  a 
design,  the  greater  will  be  the  effect  produced.  There- 
fore, the  strongest,  as  well  as  the  simplest  composi- 
tion, will  be  that  which  has  but  one  focal  point— the 
climax  and  its  accompaniments. 

First,  then,  we  shall  examine  the  unsymmetrical 
composition  having  but  one  focal  point. 

The  application  of  our  general  laws  is  here  so 
simple  that  we  need  only  make  a  few  suggestions. 
Broadly  speaking,  there  are  three  methods  (we  may 
derive  them  from  what  was  said  of  the  composition 
of  lines  on  page  47)  by  which  the  accompanying  ele- 
ments are  made  to  relate  to  their  focal  point;  they 
may  lead  into  it,  form  a  frame  around  it,  or  radiate 
from  it.     The  second  two  of  these  methods  usually 

*  This  does  not  follow  what  Mr.  Kuskin  suggests  in  his  "  Ele- 
ments of  Drawing  and  Composition." 


AKBANGEMENTS    OF  PICTORIAL.   COMPOSITIONS.        73 

imply  a  symmetrical  arrangement;  so  we  shall  dis- 
cuss them  with  the  next  class  of  compositions.  The 
first  of  the  three  methods  is  the  one  most  used  in 
unsymmetrical,  informal  work;  therefore,  broadly 
speaking  in  designs  of  the  first  group  the  main  lines 
of  the  sub-elements  must  lead  into  the  climax. 

With  regard  to  the  fourth  law  of  composition,  in 
such  an  example  as  Whistler's  portrait  of  his  mother, 
or  the  Holbein  Head  of  Erasmus,  more  space  should 
be  left  in  front  of  the  face  than  behind.  The  features 
give  especial  interest  to  one  side.  In  the  light  of  the 
fifth  law,  we  readily  see  how  disastrous  would  be 
lines  near  a  frame,  that  might  establish  a  motive  par- 
allel to  it:  parallel  motives  without  a  liaison  do  not 
compose.  This  preoccupation  in  regard  to  a  design's 
composing  with  its  border  should  exist  in  all  cases 
where  a  frame  is  to  be  used. 

Besides  portraits  in  profile,  etc.,  decorative  panels 
with  one  figure  not  on  axis,  the  greater  number  of 
smaller  unsymmetrical  paintings,  certain  monuments, 
and  most  examples  of  modern  sculpture  come  within 
this  group. 

Second,  the  symmetrical  composition  with  but  one 
focal  point  and  one  axis. 

An  axis  of  symmetry  (being  really  a  succession  of 
minor  focal  points,  or  a  focal  point  extended  in  one 
direction),  to  reduce  the  number  of  sub-elements, 
should  coincide  with  a  major  focal  point.  The  three 
methods  of  composing  the  lines  of  elements,  spoken 
of  in  the  discussion  of  the  preceding  class,  in  this 
class  are  equally  useful. 


74 


THE   PKINCIPLES   OF   COMPOSITION. 


For  an  illustration  of  them  see  A,  B  and  C,  figure 
11.  In  all  of  these  arrangements  the  climax,  that  it 
may  answer  to  h  of  the  first  law  (page  43)  must  not 
be  too  near  either  the  top  or  the  bottom  of  the  compo- 
sition. If  the  design  has  a  "head"  and  ''base"— 
such  designs  usually  do— the  lines  near  the  base 


Fig.  11. 

would  best  form  either  a  horizontal  succession,  or  else 
themselves  be  horizontal  or  horizontally  inclined. 
This  is  the  one  exception  where  a  motive  of  a  compo- 
sition may  be  made  parallel  to  the  frame.  Even  then 
it  should  be  broken  or  limited.  Raffaelle's  "Sistine 
Madonna"  is  an  excellent  example  of  a  design  com- 
posed under  the  second  method  of  this  class  (Fig. 
12 ) .    It  may  be  analyzed  as  the  diagram  shows. 

There  are  many  compositions  formed  in  part  under 
one  of  the  three  methods  of  Fig.  11,  and  in  part 
under  another.  At  times,  a  single  element  may  come 
under  the  head  of  two  of  them  at  once,  as  in  Fig. 
11,  D,  where  the  semicircular  suite  is  formed  of  mo- 
tives that  radiate,  and  yet,  in  their  ensemble,  form  a 
frame.  The  general  scheme  of  decoration  at  the  end 
of  a  barrel-vaulted  room  is  often  treated  thus. 


ARRANGEMENTS   OF   PICTORIAL    COMPOSITIONS. 


75 


If  the  design,  belonging  to  this  or  any  class,  is  to 
fit  into  a  circular  or  elliptical  frame,  the  lines  near  the 
edge  of  the  composition,  unless  radiating  directly 
from  the  center,  should  not  be  straight  (exception 
may  sometimes  be  made  for  a  short  base  line,  espe- 
cially if  softened  or  broken  by  details) ;  they  would 
best  lead  out  of  the  frame  into  the  central  portion 
of  the  design,  as  in  Boticelli's  *^  Madonna  Incoro- 
nata."    A   decided  horizontal  base   line   is   to  be 


Fig,  12. 

avoided  here.  If  there  are  no  definite  lines  near  the 
edge  of  such  a  curved  frame,  the  interior  design  may 
have  its  outer  edge  either  blended  into  the  back- 
ground or  made  of  curves  or  lines  in  different  direc- 
tions, that  there  may  be  no  unpleasant  feeling  of  par- 
allelism with  the  frame.  The  composition  for  a 
medal  might  come  within  this  group,  as  do  circular 
full-face  portraits. 


76 


THE   PRINCIPLES   OP   COMPOSITION. 


Third,  we  take  up  the  unsymmetrical  composition 
with  an  axis  of  symmetry  passing  through  the  climax. 

Here,  it  is  well  to  balance  the  long  accompanying 
motive  which  necessarily  occurs  on  one  side  of  the 
axis  by  a  more  condensed  one  on  the  other.  Lateral 
elevations  of  buildings  often  come  under  this  head, 
being  composed  of  a  symmetrical  pavilion  with  an 
accompanying  long  wing  behind.  An  entrance  or 
important  decorative  motive  on  the  main  fagade  of 
the  building  will  establish  the  equilibrium  (Fig.  13). 


Fig.  13. 

In  connection  with  this  it  may  be  remarked  that  an 
architect  should  remember  his  building  is  to  be  seen 
in  perspective,  and  if  he  makes  his  principal  eleva- 
tion a  symmetrical  one  he  should  make  the  lateral 
elevation  unsymmetrical. 

Mr.  John  Beverly  Robinson  says,  in  an  article  on 
composition:*  *'It  is  one  of  the  indications  of  the 
superiority  of  the  artistic  sense  of  the  Greeks,  to  our 
own,  that  their  effortless  perception  of  odd  and  even 
extended  to  so  many  more  things  than  does  ours.    A 

*  See  The  Architectural  Record,  1898-99,  p.  112. 


ARBANGEMENTS    OF  PICTORIAL   COMPOSITIONS.        77 

Greek  took  as  much  care  to  put  fourteen,  or  sixteen, 
or  eighteen  intercolumniations  on  the  side  of  a  build- 
ing, in  order  to  avoid  a  central  opening,  as  we  take 
to  put  the  door  in  the  middle  of  a  room. ' ' 

Fourth,  we  shall  examine  the  composition  with  one 
focal  point  and  with  two  axes  of  symmetry  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  both  passing  through  the  middle 
of  the  composition. 

Naturally,  the  focal  point  will  here  be  at  the  inter- 
section of  the  axes,  and  will  itself  be  symmetrical  in 


Fig.  14. 

regard  to  each.  There  should  be  no  top  or  bottom  to 
such  a  design.  Certain  rugs,  some  ceiling  decora- 
tions, rose  windows,  etc.,  come  under  this  head. 
There  may  be  a  case  of  this  group  where  the  accom- 
panying elements  have  special  ties  to  unite  them  with 
the  main  motive.  These  ties  must  be  symmetrically 
placed  with  regard  to  both  axes  (Fig.  14). 

Fifth  in  order  comes  the  symmetrical  composition, 
having  a  second  axis  which  does  not  pass  through  the 
middle  of  the  composition. 

Again,  the  climax  will  be  at  the  intersection  of  the 
axes,  the  latter  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  The 
principal   axis,    defining   the    composition   as   sym- 


78 


THE   PRINCIPLES   OF   COMPOSITION. 


metrical,  draws  its  name  from  that,  and  should 
always  be  the  more  important.  It  need  not  be  the 
more  extended.  It  may  be  either  vertical  or  hori- 
zontal. In  both  cases  the  composition  will  have  a 
direction.     The  climax  may  be  above,  below,  to  right 


Fig.  15. 


or  left  of  the  middle  of  the  composition;  but  not 
too  near  the  edge,  nor  just  otf  the  middle.  About 
one-third  from  one  end  (two- thirds  from  the  other) 
will  be  a  good  position.  Such  a  composition  might 
be  adopted  for  a  vertical  panel  or  for  the  decoration 
of  a  book  cover  or  album.  In  each  case  a  direction 
is  implied  (Fig.  15). 

Sixth,  there  might  be  a  rather  unusual  case  of  an 
unsymmetrical  composition  with  two  axes,  either 
equal  or  unequal,  either  cutting  the  climax  or  merely 


ARRANGEMENTS    OF  PICTORIAL   COMPOSITIONS.        79 


radiating  from  it  on  one  side, 
either  at  right  angles  to  each 
other  or  not. 

In  any  event,  the  climax 
would  be  at  the  meeting  of 
the  axes ;  and  if  these  do  not 
make  an  angle  of  90°  there 
should  be  a  reason  for  it 
(such  as  an  attempt  to  make 
the  design  fit  better  in  a 
frame).  Moreover,  the  angle 
of  the  axes  should  not  be  too 
acute,  nor  yet  just  off  the 
right  angle  (Fig.  16,  a). 
When  the  axes  are  equal,  a 
symmetrical  figure  really  re- 
sults, with  an  implied  third 
and  main  axis  bisecting  the 
angle  which  they  make  (Fig, 
16,  c).  b,  Fig.  16,  is  so  forc- 
ed as  not  to  be  very  good.  It 
would  be  better  treated  as  an 
unsymmetrical  composition 
without  any  axes  (the  sym- 
metry of  the  present  axes  de- 
stroyed), or  with  only  one,  as 
are  many  lateral  elevations 
(see  Fig.  13). 

Seventh,  the  symmetrical 
composition  having  a  main 
axis    and    two    minor    axes 


80 


THE   PEINCIPLES   OP   COMPOSITION. 


I    I 


Wm 


parallel  to  it,  the  secondary  motives  being  adjacent 
to  the  principal  motive. 

This  makes  a  three-motive  composition.      As  we 
know,  parallel  motives  do  not  compose  unless  some 

of  their  elements,  or  foreign 
elements,  serve  as  a  tie.  The 
most  successful  method  for 
tying  together  the  secondary 
and  principal  motives  of  this 
seventh  class  is  to  make  com- 
mon some  of  the  elements  of 
the  motives.  The  sketches  of 
Fig.  17  will  show  this  treat- 
ment. 

Eighth,  the  same  composi- 
tion with  a  main  axis  of  sym- 
metry at  right  angles  to  the 
first. 

The  manner  of  uniting  the 
motives  would  be  the  same. 
If  a  foreign  tie,  or  ties  exist, 
it  or  they  should  be  symmet- 
rically placed  with  regard  to 
the  main  axes  (Fig.  17,  d). 

Ninth,  the  symmetrical 
composition  having  a  main 
axis  and  two  minor  secondary  axes  parallel  to  it,  the 
secondary  motives  being  separated  from  the  prin- 
cipal motive. 

Such  an  arrangement  should  be  used  when  a  com- 
position is  so  large,  or  exists  in  such  different  planes, 


Fig.  17. 


ARRANGEMENTS   OP  PICTORIAL   COMPOSITIONS.        81 


that  its  separate  motives  are  to  be  seen  independently, 
as  well  as  in  the  ensemble.  Thus  the  three  motives 
A,  B  and  B'  of  a,  Fig.  18,  will,  in  perspective,  come 
within  the  ninth  class,  the  sub-motives  being  sep- 
arated from  the  climax  by  the  wings  C,  C. 

That  the  minor  motives  may  unite  with  the  climax 
in  a  five-element  composition  of  this  class,  especially 
if  all  five  elements  are  in  the  same  plane  (Fig.  18,  h), 


I 

Ia 


a. 


I 


Fig.  18. 


the  intervening  elements  should  contrast  with  the 
main  motives  in  direction,  arrangement,  and  size; 
they  should  tie  in  with  the  main  motives ;  they  should 
create  as  little  as  possible  axes  of  their  own.  Be  it 
repeated,  the  secondary  motives  should  never  look 
like  babies  of  the  climax  (see  ''scale,"  page  66). 


Fig.  19. 

Tenth,  we  have  a  repetition  of  the  preceding  case 
with  the  addition  of  a  main  axis  of  symmetry  at  right 
angles  to  the  others. 

Fig.  19  shows  this,  the  manner  of  composing  it 

7 


82 


THE  PRINCIPLES   OF   COMPOSITION. 


being  the  same  as  that  of  class  nine  with  the  addi- 
tional need  of  placing  any  ties  symmetrically  in  re- 
gard to  the  new  main  axis. 

Eleventh,  we  have  the  same  case  as  in  the  ninth 
class,  with  unsymmetrical  motives  on  each  end,  a 
composition  of  seven  elements  (Fig.  20).  This 
should  only  be  used  in  long  elevations,  etc. 


Fig.  20. 

Twelfth,  the  symmetrical  composition  with  several 
sub-axes,  parallel  and  perpendicular  to  the  main  axis. 

Large  plans  are  nearly  always  of  this  class.  Fig. 
73,  M.  Henri  Deglane's  successful  design  in  the 
competition  for  the  Grand  Prix  de  Eome  of  the 
French  *'Institut"  1881,  is  a  well-known  example. 
In  attacking  such  a  problem,  the  more  the  number  of 
axes  is  reduced,  the  better  it  will  be. 

Thirteenth,  the  unsymmetrical  composition  with 
two  principal  focal  points. 

Such  an  arrangement  would  only  be  used  where  a 
dominant  idea  (the  program)  makes  it  imperative. 
Titian's  "Sacred  and  Profane  Love"  is  an  example 
of  this.  The  result  must,  of  course,  be  less  concen- 
trated than  that  given  by  a  composition  with  only  one 
focal  point;  although  in  such  a  work  as  Titian's  the 


AKRANGEMENTS    OF  PICTORIAL   COMPOSITIONS. 


83 


contrast  of  the  figures  accentuates  each.  Even  here, 
however,  we  are  forced  to  glance  from  one  figure  to 
the  other,  to  divide  the  attention  between  them. 

In  making  a  design  of  this  kind  the  artist  must 
remember  that  the  two  climaxes,  while  remaining 
adequately  separated,  should  evidently  relate  to  each 
other,  and  that  the  lines  of  the  sub-elements  should 
lead  up  to  and  connect  them.  Otherwise  two  compo- 
sitions, instead  of  one,  will  result. 

A  corridor  or  long  building  connecting  two  differ- 
ent but  equally  important  pavilions,  in  elevation, 
would  give  such  a  composition  (Fig.  21).  This  often 
occurs  in  side  elevations. 

Fourteenth,  the  symmetrical  composition  with  two 
equal  principal  motives  not  widely  separated. 

Like  the  last  considered  class,  this  offers  a  solution 


Fio.  21. 

which  is  not  concentrated,  and  therefore  should  also 
only  be  used  for  the  sake  of  the  program. 

It  may  be  good  where  a  crowd  or  stream  of  people 
is  to  enter  a  building  by  one  door  and  come  out  by 
another— the  railroad  station  (Fig.  22,  a),  for  ex- 
ample. It  is  well  to  place  a  decorative  motive  on  the 
pier  between  such  bays.  This  concentrates  the  at- 
tention. It  might  be  said  that  this  also  takes  the 
composition  out  of  the  present  class,  by  establishing 
a  main  axis. 


84 


DECOEATIVE    APPLICATIOIT. 


Fifteenth.  We  have  still  one  more  case  of  the 
symmetrical  composition  showing  two  equal  climaxes, 
separated  by  a  long  motive  (Fig.  22,  h). 

It  would  now  be  a  mistake  to  try  to  concentrate  the 
attention  on  a  spot  between  the  climaxes,  in  that  they 
could  never  form  one  group,  and  the  addition  of  a 


fictitious  point  of  interest  would  merely  multiply  the 
number  of  focal  points. 

"We  cannot  pretend  in  fifteen  groups,  or  classes  of 
compositions,  to  have  exhausted  the  subject,  but  hav- 
ing noted  the  most  important  combinations,  we  may 
hope  to  have  given  suggestions  which  will  serve  for 
others  of  like  character.  And  these  suggestions  are, 
after  all,  only  the  outcome  of  the  main  laws  of  com- 
position. By  a  strict  adherence  to  the  latter,  even 
such  a  difficult  problem  as  the  one  presented  in  M. 
Pascal's  famous  Grand  Prix  plan  (Fig.  23)  can  be 
successfully  solved. 


^i  Z     % 

-   >//    N       //  1  •  •  •     ■  f 


Fig.  23.    Grand  Prix  plan  of  M.  Pasca 


Trois  hotels  POUK  TBOIS  FREEES  banquiers." 


PART  III. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Decorative  Application  of  the  Laws  op  Com- 
position. 

In  "La  Composition  Decorative,"*  M.  Henri 
Mayeux  has  treated  the  practical  arrangement  of 
decoration  in  such  a  complete  and  masterly  manner 
that  I  shall  refer  to  him  those  readers  who  want  more 
detail  than  present  space  allows. 

Following  somewhat  the  plan  adopted  in  *'La  Com- 
position Decorative, ' '  we  shall  take  up  first  the  study 
of  the  form  of  decorative  motives,  then  the  study 
of  decoration,  irrespective  of  the  form  on  which  it  is 
placed,  and  lastly,  the  application  of  decoration  to 
form. 

1.  Form. 

Considering  their  form,  we  may  divide  decora- 
tive motives  into  two  groups:  {a)  those  which  have 
two  dimensions,  height  and  width,  and  {h)  those 
which  have  three  dimensions,  height,  width  and 
thickness. 

{a)  The  requirements  of  motives  belonging  to  the 
first  of  these  two  groups  lie  in  the  shape  of  the  sil- 

*  Paris,  Librairies  Imprimeries  R^unies,  Ancienne  Maison 
Quantin. 

85 


86 


DECOEATIVE    APPLICATION. 


houette.  Recurring  to  the  laws  already  laid  down, 
we  remember  that  what  is  undecided,  is  never  agree- 
able (see  Part  I.,  page  25).  So  all  silhouettes  should 
have  marked  characteristics.  A  succession  of  mould- 
ings ought  not  to  form  a  wavering  and  unmeaning 
line;  there  should  be  no  question  about  the  general 
form  of  any  contour. 

A  square  ought  to  appear  exactly  square,  while 
rectangles  which  are  not  square  must  never  be  almost 
so.  The  same  is  true  of  circles  and  ovals,  while  a 
diamond  should  be  elongated  enough  not  to  look  like 
a  square  on  one  comer.    The  most  agreeable  propor- 


FiG.  24. 

tion  for  a  rectangle  is  supposed  to  be  given  by  making 
the  longer  side  equal  to  the  diagonal  of  the  square 
erected  on  the  shorter. 

Again,  the  laws  just  referred  to  show  us  that  un- 
like succeeding  motives  of  equal  dimensions  are  bad ; 
and  when  we  remember  that  one  of  the  elements  of 
a  composition  is  to  dominate  the  others  we  realize 
why  a  of  Fig.  24  is  displeasing.  A  is  too  nearly 
equal  to  B,  as  is  C  to  D,  and  A,  the  principal  motive, 
does  not  dominate.    Also,  projecting  motives  should 


APPLICATION    OP   LAWS   OP    COMPOSITION. 


87 


not  be  equal  to  the  retreating  elements  which  sepa- 
rate them,  as  are  F  and  E  or  B  and  H. 

The  fact  that  indecision  is  distressing  will  guide 
us  in  the  general  arrangement  of  our  silhouette.    If 

I  I 


Fig.  25. 


we  have  chosen  a  symmetrical  scheme,  each  element 
will  repeat  itself;  but  where  an  axis  of  symmetry 
does  not  exist,  neither  the  details,  nor  the  general 
mass  (the  latter  is  often  the  more  difficult  to  keep  in 


Fig.  26. 


mind)  will  be  similar.    Fig.  25  shows  this  in  rela- 
tion to  a  horizontal  axis. 


88 


DECORATIVE    APPLICATION. 


d  ^nl 


e. 


Ym.  27. 


We  should  avoid  silhou- 
ettes v^hich  are  too  broken 
(as  in  some  of  the  Flem- 
ish work)  with  an  equal 
amount  of  decoration  every- 
where. Unbroken  lines 
should  be  introduced  to  give 
contrast.  For  the  same 
reason  a  silhouette  must  not 
be  composed  entirely  of 
straight  lines,  else  it  be- 
comes rigid,  brutal,  and  un- 
interesting. 

Last  of  all,  do  not  make 
silhouettes  with  angles, 
either  protruding  or  re- 
entrant, which  are  too  acute 
or  obtuse.  That  lines  may 
contrast  and  compose,  we 
remember  that  the  angles 
they  make  should  be  as 
near  90°  as  possible.  Also, 
acute  and  sharp  angles  are, 
in  many  cases,  both  diffi- 
cult to  construct  and  to  pro- 
tect from  injury;  they  give 
one  a  feeling  of  being 
pointed,  painful  to  touch, 
and,  on  the  whole,  un- 
pleasant (see  Fig.  26). 

Curves  which  are  flat  or 
approach  the  straight  line 


APPLICATION    OF   LAWS   OF    COMPOSITION.  89 

are  bad  (Fig.  27,  a).  Usually  composite  curved 
lines  formed  (without  breaks)  of  more  than  two  ele- 
ments are  bad  (Fig.  27,  b).  When  one  curve  suc- 
ceeds another,  the  tangents  at  the  ends  which  come 
together,  should  be  either  perpendicular  or  parallel 
to  each  other  (Fig.  27  d).  If  there  is  a  fillet  between 
such  curves  it  would  be  perpendicular  to  the  tangents 
just  referred  to  (Fig.  27,  d).  If,  however,  the  tan- 
gents make  an  acute  or  obtuse  angle,  the  break  should 
be  perpendicular  to  one  of  them  (Fig.  27,  e) :  the  more 
exposed  angle  is  made  the  less  acute— and  this  in  all 
cases,  except  where  the  curves  repeat  each  other,  when 
the  fillet  would  be  perpendicular  to  the  bisectrice  of 
the  angle  of  the  tangents  (Fig.  27,  /). 

(b)  FoEMS  OF  Three  Dimensions. 

In  a  composition  where  depth,  as  well  as  width  and 
height,  is  a  factor,  the  artist  should,  first  of  all,  ensure 
that  the  design  which  his  projections  accentuate  is 
in  harmony  with  that  already  displayed  in  the  sil- 
houette. 

The  laws  governing  the  profiles  of  forms  of  three 
dimensions  are  the  same  as  those  which  apply  to 
forms  having  but  two  dimensions.  One  of  the  ele- 
ments must  dominate;  there  must  be  no  indecision 
in  the  choice  of  the  *'partie"  (symmetrical  or  un- 
symmetrical) ;  the  lines  and  shapes  must  not  be  mis- 
takable  for  other  lines  or  shapes;  angles  must  not 
be  too  sharp  or  too  obtuse,  and  a  good  balancing  must 
always  be  observed  in  the  joint  use  of  curved  and 
straight  lines,  concentrated  portions  of  decoration 


90 


DECORATIVE    APPLICATION. 


being  placed  in  contrast  with  uniform  or  undecorated 
portions. 

In  the  comparison  of  spaces,  or  of  broken  or  un- 
broken surfaces,  in  like  or  unlike  projections,  the  laws 
of  composition  may  be  applied  in  the  same  manner. 

If  two  similar  motives  exist,  one  over  the  other— 
this  occurs  in  some  book-shelves,  or  in  a  buffet— 
they  should  be  exact  repetitions  one  of  the  other  (Fig. 
28). 

In  regard  to  mouldings :  flat  cymas,  etc.,  are  some- 
times used,  as  they  seem  to  express  more  strength 


Fig.  28. 

than  a  greatly  distorted  surface;  but  even  here  the 
recommendation  holds  good  riot  to  make  a  curved 
surface  which  may  resemble  a  plane.  In  a  suite  of 
mouldings  it  is  well  to  recall  the  projections  of  im- 
portant members  of  different  groups.  The  custom 
of  making  the  stilobate  of  the  base  of  a  column  come 
exactly  over  the  shaft  of  the  pedestal  is  an  example 


APPLICATION   OP   LAWS  OF   COMPOSITION. 


91 


of  this.      (See  in  Fig.  29  an  example 
of  a  good  suite  of  mouldings.) 

In  designing  mouldings  which  cutun- 
der  and  do  not  show  in  elevation,  care 
must  be  taken  that  the  realization  of 
the  design  does  not  contain  unpleasant 
surprises.  In  Fig.  30,  at  A  and  B, 
the  tangents,  a'  and  b',  should  be  either 
parallel  or  normal  to  the  succeeding 
important  elements,  c'  and  d',  or  pos- 
sibly to  e  and  /.  If  the  angles  A'  and 
B'  are  too  acute  they  should  be  altered, 
as  in  the  second  figures  of  A'  and  B'. 

Of  course,  one  suite  of  mouldings 
would  never  be  blindly  run  into  an- 
other suite  at  right  angles  to  it.  When 
unlike  sets  of  mouldings  form  an  angle, 
the  best  method  is  to  place  a  plain 
block  at  the  intersection,  either  arranged  so  that  eacli 
set  will  end  against  it,  or  so  conceived  that  it  will 


Fig.  29. 


-''      --A ^ ^<\r  "^■•.     ■ 


Fig,  30. 


coincide  with  a  group  of  members  of  the  higher  set 
and  receive  all  of  those  of  the  lower.     Sometimes  a 


92 


DECOKATIVE    APPLICATION. 


very  simple  element— usually  it  must  be  a  vertical  or 
only  slightly  inclined  plain  member  of  one  of  the 
suites— may  be  large  enough  to  receive  the  more 
complex  members  of  the  other  suite;  in  which  case 
the  supplementary  block  becomes  unnecessary.  There 
is  seldom  a  disadvantage  in  introducing  the  plain 
stone ;  for  it  acts  as  an  agreeable  foil  to  the  more  con- 
torted forms  of  the  mouldings. 
A  quality,  necessary  to  all  objects  in  full  relief,  is 
•,  stability,  and  this  need  must 

be  met  in  appearance,  as  well 
as  in  reality.  For  instance, 
a  clock,  a  prize  cup,  or  even 
a  student  lamp  may  have  con- 
centrated portions  of  metal, 
on  one  side,  which  actually 
balance  the  larger,  hollow 
portions,  on  the  other ;  but  if 
they  seem  unequal,  if  one 
fears  that  the  object  may  top- 
ple over,  the  design  is  faulty. 
Even  flat  compositions,  dec- 
^G.  31.  orations,  etc.,  should,  when- 

ever verticality  is  suggested,  seem  to  be  supported 
or  suspended  from  a  point  in  the  same  vertical  with 
the  center  of  gravity  of  the  shape.  The  unsymmetrical 
Louis  XV.  cartouche,  shown  in  Fig.  31,  should  be 
balanced  sufficiently  on  the  side  opposite  the  figure  to 
maintain  its  apparent  equilibrium.  In  other  words, 
whenever  a  design  appears  subject  to  the  laws  of 


APPLICATION    OF   LAWS   OF    COMPOSITION. 


93 


gravity,  absolute  obedi- 
ence to  these  laws  must 
be  evident. 

A  special  case,  having 
something  in  common 
with  this  may  occur  in 
the  treatment  of  objects 
of  three  dimensions, 
where  a  vertical  axis 
exists,  with  a  triangular 
or  pentangular,  etc., 
plan.  Here,  because  the 
object  is  only  symmetri- 
cal when  seen  from  cer- 
tain directions,  it  is  un- 
wise to  place  above  it, 
another  form  which  is 
symmetrical  in  all  direc- 
tions. Fig.  32  shows 
how  disastrous  may  be 
the  result  of  crowning 
a  triangular  monument 
with  a  dome.  Indeed, 
it  is  well  to  treat  the 
monument  having  a  tri- 
angular plan  as  though 
it  were  unsymmetrical,  placing  a  decorative  element 
in  the  middle  of  each  face,  to  balance  the  projection 
of  the  opposite  corner.  Thus  is  the  appearance  of 
stability  maintained. 


Fig.  32. 


94 


DECOKATIVE    APPLICATION. 


2.  Decoration. 

2.  Examining  different  kinds  of  decoration,  with 
the  sources  from  which  they  may  be  derived,  we  find 
two  great  classes  comprising: 

A.  Motives  which  represent  an  object. 


Fig.  33. 


B.  Motives  which  are  merely  a  combination  of  lines 
or  forms. 

A.  Motives  which  represent  an  object  may  again 
be  divided;  this  time  (according  to  the  method  of 


APPLICATION    OF   LAWS   OF    COMPOSITION. 


95 


Fig.  33. 


96  DECORATIVE    APPLICATION. 

their  representation)  into  four  general  classes  ;*  i.  e,, 
(a)  the  objects  may  be  depicted  in  a  natural  man- 
ner and  arranged  informally;  (6)  they  may  be  de- 
picted in  a  natural  manner,  but  arranged  in  a  formal 
composition;  (c)  they  may  be  depicted  in  a  conven- 
tional manner  and  arranged  informally;  (d)  they 
may  be  conventionalized  and  arranged  in  a  formal 
composition.  Also,  a  mixed  method  may  exist  where 
a  representation  of  one  kind  is  introduced  as  a  detail 
in  a  representation  of  another  kind  (Fig.  33,  e). 

{a  and  b)  Here  we  need  few  suggestions,  as  the 
general  laws  of  composition  show  us  where  to  concen- 
trate the  interest  and  how  to  balance  and  keep  our 
arrangement  in  scale,  etc.  (Fig.  33).  We  have  only 
to  choose  and  carefully  depict  the  best  of  what  nature 
has  to  offer.  The  Eenaissance  offers  many  fine  ex- 
amples of  this  kind  of  decoration. 

{c  and  d)  It  is  in  the  third  and  fourth  divisions 
where  the  elements  are  conventionalized,  that  we  find 
the  most  truly  decorative  expression  of  art.  And 
this,  I  think,  is  easily  understood.  Decoration,  pure 
and  simple,  exists  primarily  to  please  the  eye  by 
beautifying  a  particular  object  or  place.  It  must 
usually  have  little  or  no  individuality  of  its  own,  be- 
cause it  is  the  accessory  of  another  individuality.  It 
must  always  be  subservient  to  the  object  or  place  it 
decorates.  Therefore  it  is  that  records  of  nature  are 
somewhat  out  of  place  when  used  for  decorative  pur- 
poses.   They  are  too  personal  and  assert  themselves. 

•  Mayeux  suggests  only  three  general  classes  into  which  motives 
may  be  divided,  considering  c  and  d  under  the  same  head. 


APPLICATION    OF   LAWS   OF    COMPOSITION.  97 

It  is  true  that  we  enjoy,  in  a  decorative  sense,  conven- 
tionalized elements  of  nature  where  the  characteristics 
are  truthfully  retained— the  morq  truthfully,  the  bet- 
ter—but when  these  elements  become  portraits,  in- 
stead of  suggestions,  they  should  be  by  themselves, 
in  a  frame  or  on  a  pedestal.  Moreover,  except  in  the 
case  of  wax  flowers  and  similar  imitations,  where  the 
only  art  shown  is  that  in  the  fashioning  (the  art  of  a 
machine  rather  than  of  a  man),  all  representations  of 
nature  or  portraits  must  be,  to  some  extent,  conven- 
tional. Who  can  give  the  actual  effect  of  sunlight, 
by  putting  paint  on  a  piece  of  canvas?  Therefore, 
where  it  is  not  the  aim  of  the  artist  to  catch  and  mark 
the  particular  phase  or  effect  of  a  model,  he  would 
better  keep  himself  as  far  as  possible  from  the  real- 
istic; he  will  thus  gain  in  ''frankness"  as  well  as  in 
the  decorative  feeling. 

It  may  be  asked  as  an  objection  to  this, ' '  Why  is  it 
that  those  designs  which  suggest  the  characteristics 
of  nature  are  yet  useful  for  decorations,  are  even 
more  pleasing,  perhaps,  than  purely  geometrical 
forms  ? ' ' 

At  the  beginning  of  this  discussion  of  composi- 
tion we  said  that  that  work  of  art  is  the  broadest 
which  brings  into  play  all  the  faculties  of  the  ob- 
server. It  is  probably  for  this  reason  that  forms 
which  remind  us  of  previously  experienced  pleasures 
are,  in  that,  more  to  our  taste  than  those  which  sug- 
gest nothing.  We  must  remember  that  in  all 
branches  of  art  there  is  some  one  characteristic  which 
must  dominate  the  others.  In  our  present  study  it 
8 


98  DECORATIVE    APPLICATION. 

is,  as  we  began  by  saying,  the  characteristic  which 
gives  beauty  to  a  particular  part  of  a  particular  com- 
position. 

A  maxim  for  decorators  is  that  in  their  work  all 
suggestion  of  relief  or  depression,  not  actually  existent 
in  the  surface  of  the  finished  design,  should  be  es- 
chewed. Hence  perspective  lines  and  distance  ef- 
fects ought,  in  mural  paintings,  etc.,  only  to  be  intro- 
duced with  the  greatest  care.  A  conventionalization 
of  such  effects  is  all  that  can  be  tolerated.  In  other 
decorative  work,  excepting  perhaps  mural  tapestries, 
and  possibly  stained  glass,  it  is  better  never  to  use 
any  perspective.  It  is  easy  to  realize  the  truth  of 
this,  for  it  is  evident  that,  whatever  the  subject  de- 
picted in  a  mural  painting,  the  wall  should  still  show 
that  it  is  a  solid  plane  substance,  quite  able  to  support 
the  ceiling  or  vault.  Also,  we  may  be  certain  a  carpet 
would  not  reassure  the  visitor  were  he  deluded  into 
thinking  he  must  walk  upon  spear  points,  or  perhaps 
fall  through  a  hole  into  infinite  space,  while  few  men 
would  care  to  tread  upon  the  delicate  form  of  a  beau- 
tiful child,  no  matter  how  unusual  or  original  might 
seem  its  presence  upon  the  floor. 

All  objects,  not  in  themselves  already  too  conven- 
tional, may  be  conventionalized. 

This  is  done  by  accentuating  the  characteristics  of 
the  object  or  of  the  species  to  which  the  object  be- 
longs, leaving  out  all  unnecessary  details.  Mayeux 
says,  in  speaking  of  the  conventionalization  of 
plants:*    ''C'est  d'ailleurs  I'allure  meme  des  vege- 

*  "  La  Composition  Decorative,"  p.  50. 


APPLICATION    OF   LAWS   OF    COMPOSITION.  99 

taux  qui  indiquera  le  sens  ou  1  'artiste  doit  s  'engager ; 
ainsi  on  accentuera  la  symetrie  et  meme  la  rigidite, 
si  la  plante  I'exprime  deja,  ou  au  contraire  la  sou- 
plesse  et  la  flexibilite  si  la  nature  presente  cette  tend- 
ance. *  *  *  En  un  mot,  il  s'agit  d'affirmer  le  mouve- 
ment  deja  ebauclie  par  la  nature  meme  et  de  rem- 
placer  1  'attrait  de  la  verite  dans  le  dessin  et  la  couleur 
par  le  caractere  de  la  silhouette  et  la  simplicite  de  la 
f acture. ' ' 

We  must  be  careful,  when  following  this  advice,  to 
avoid  accentuating  the  freaks  of  a  particular  model. 
These  can  never  be  characteristic  of  the  plant  itself. 

Persian  art  gives  us  an  almost  limitless  list  of  ex- 
amples of  conventionalization;  in  studying  its  mas- 
terpieces we  realize  that  simple  flowers  are  the  best 
to  choose  as  models  for  our  work.  Other  sources  for 
inspiration  are  of  Egypt,  Greece  and  Japan. 

In  conventionalizing  animals  it  is  safer  to  be  more 
or  less  extreme,  possibly  merely  filling  in  the  silhou- 
ette with  a  flat,  characteristic,  but  not  too  naturalistic 
tone,  and  omitting  all  modelling.  The  Japanese, 
however,  be  the  result  intentional  or  unintentional, 
have  proved  that  an  animal  may  be  conventionalized 
and  yet  be  most  delicately  and  beautifully  detailed. 

In  portraying  the  sun,  moon  and  stars,  water,  fire, 
etc.,  it  is  hardly  possible  to  do  more  than  present  a 
symbolical  rendering.  Thus  the  sun  of  Louis  XIV. 
is  a  face  with  rays  emanating  in  all  directions,  while 
the  rays  of  light  so  much  used  in  ecclesiastical  archi- 
tecture of  the  Louis  XV.  period— in  St.  Roch  at  Paris 
and  other  similar  churches— are  only  barely  sugges- 


100  DECORATIVE    APPLICATION. 

tive  of  the  sun's  breaking  out  from  behind  a  cloud. 
The  three  crescents,  interlaced,  of  Dianne  de  Poic- 
tiers,  is  another  well  known  example  of  symbolical 
representation;  indeed,  heraldic  devices  in  general 
are  rich  mines  of  suggestion. 

Last  of  all,  the  objects  which  are  the  result  of  man's 
inventive  genius,  properly  represented,  may  come  in 
aid  of  the  designer.  Implements  of  war,  of  the  arts 
and  sciences,  and  architecture  itself,  all  lend  them- 
selves as  elements  of  decoration.  The  methods  of 
conventionalization  are  identical  with  those  used  for 
natural  objects;  the  leaving  out  of  unnecessary  de- 
tails, the  use  of  a  simple  suggestive  silhouette,  etc. 
In  this  province,  the  laws  relative  to  scale  must  be 
kept  continually  in  mind. 

When  treating  architecture,  it  is  often  well  to  re- 
duce or  lighten  its  elements,  even  making  the  whole 
purely  fantastic.  Of  course,  the  same  feeling  must 
exist  throughout  the  example,  for  if  a  colonnette  of 
reduced  proportion  support  a  vase  or  emblem  of  the 
ordinary  size,  or  if  a  volute  of  sturdy  growth  serve 
as  base  for  a  delicate  spindle  and  fairy-like  entabla- 
ture, the  result  will  hardly  be  agreeable.  The  student 
should  examine  some  of  the  Pompeian  fresco  decora- 
tions, where  the  rendering  of  architecture  plays  so 
prominent  and  attractive  a  part.  In  this  direction 
Renaissance  work  is  less  good,  although  some  of  the 
early  Renaissance  stained  glass  shows  a  very  beauti- 
ful treatment  of  architecture. 

As  a  warning  against  too  great  extremes:  it  is 
never  well  to  push  the  conventionalization  of  an  object 


APPLICATION    OP   LAWS   OF    COMPOSITION.  101 

SO  far  as  to  lose  the  primitive  characteristic  charm 
of  the  subject;  otherwise,  to  use  the  words  of  M. 
Mayeux,*  ^'la  modification  trop  force  ou  1 'execution 
trop  sommaire  finit  par  lasser,et  I'interet  s'evanouit." 
The  artist  should  familiarize  himself  with  nature,  and 
in  his  study  draw  its  manifold  manifestations  as  ex- 
actly as  possible.  Thus  will  he  retain,  in  his  final 
interpretations,  the  innate  sentiment  of  his  model. 

B.  Motives  which  are  merely  a  combination  of 
lines  or  forms  may  sometimes  vaguely  suggest  real 
objects ;  but,  nevertheless,  they  have  a  right  to  be  con- 
sidered by  themselves. 

Thus  the  running  ornament  composed  of  a  single 
line,  reminds  one  of  a  string  or  fine  cord  tying  itself 
into  knots  and  then  finding  its  way  out  again;  or 
perchance  it  simulates  a  growing  vine,  stretching  out 
its  tendrils  and  clinging  to  sturdier  points,  while  a 
coiling  or  wavering  flat  band  seems  to  represent  a 
thong  of  leather  or  a  ribbon.  Usually  this  suggestive 
quality  of  pure  line  or  form  is  agreeable  from  the 
decorative  point  of  view. 

Geometrical  figures  and  designs  often  owe  their 
origin  to  a  perception  of  the  above  on  the  part  of  the 
designer.  But  the  free  volutes  and  spirals  of  the 
Rococo  (Louis  XV.)  styles  are  derived,  in  great  mea- 
sure without  such  aid,  from  the  artist's  imagination. 

Arabian  art  and  Moorish  art  offer  the  best  sources 
to  which  the  student  may  go  for  models  of  impersonal 
decoration.  The  Moors,  not  being  permitted  by  their 
religious  prejudices  to  depict  flowers,  animals,  or  fig- 

*  "  La  Composition  Decorative,"  p.  65. 


102  DECOEATIVE    APPLICATION. 

ures,  necessarily  had  recourse  to  combinations  of 
line  and  mass  only;  and  their  cousins  of  the  East, 
although  more  free,  seem  not  to  be  behind  them  in 
beauty  of  similar  design. 

Before  going  on  to  the  study  of  the  application  of 
decoration  to  form,  we  may  consider  two  elements 
which  appear  in  nearly  every  decoration,  viz: 

The  relation  or  continuity  ivhich  exists  between  the 
different  motives  of  the  decoration. 

The  relation  of  the  decoration  to  its  background. 

Continuity  of  Motives. 

We  have  lately  remarked  that  almost  all  ornaments, 
if  not  directly,  at  least  indirectly,  remind  us  of  some 
object :  that  which  is  represented  by  a  line  (iron  work, 
engraved  work,  etc.)  of  a  cord,  or  vine;  that  which 
is  flat,  but  has  width  as  well  as  length  (the  classic 
interlaced  ornament  and  Grreek  fret,  also  French 
Renaissance  cartouches  and  scroll  work,  etc.,  down 
to  the  Henry  IV.  period)  of  leather  work,  or  of  a 
ribbon ;  that  which  has  relief,, and  is  modelled,  of  an 
infinity  of  objects. 

M.  Mayeux  suggests  this  as  the  reason  for  the  need 
of  certain  ties  between  different  motives  in  a  suite. 
For  instance,  in  iron  work  a  bolt  or  rivet  is  needed  to 
hold  together  two  pieces  which  touch ;  so  in  an  orna- 
ment which  reminds  us  of  iron  work,  even  uninten- 
tionally, we  feel,  through  analogy,  the  need  of  a  sug- 
gested rivet. 

That  there  is  much  truth  of  sentiment  in  this  theory 
is  evident ;  but  true  or  not,  if  we  turn  to  the  general 


CONTINUITY    OF    MOTIVES.  103 

laws  which  govern  cx>mjx)sitioii,  we  see  another  reason 
for  the  existence  of  ties,  in  the  craving  the  eye  has  for 
proper  contrast  of  line. 

I  tliink  tliat,  in  general,  we  would  better  hold  to  the 
broad  laws,  as  when  motives  cross  each  other  no  tie 
is  neeiied ;  and  to  carry  out  the  simile  of  the  vine  we 
should  have  to  imitate  objei'tionable  lines  and  con- 
nections, induced  in  a  plant  by  laws  of  gnuity,  with 
which  we,  in  our  compositions,  would  possibly  have 
nothing  to  do. 

We  may  study  the  relation  of  motives  under  three 
different  heads : 

(a)  The  motives  do  not  touch ; 

(6)  they  are  tangent; 

(c)  they  cross. 

(a)  If  tlie  motive  do  not  touch,  an  intermediate 
motive  should,  usually,  l>e  introduced. 


Fu:.  34. 

If  the  original  motives  accentuate  a  certain  direc- 
tion the  intermediate  motive  should  accentuate  an- 
other in  contrast  with  it  (Fig.  34,  a).  At  the  jx>int 
of  contact  the  intermeiiiate  motive  should  l>e  either 
nonuiU  or  tangent  to  the  original  motive  (Fig.  34,  h 
and  ('). 

(6)  If  the  motives  touch,  a  tie  sliould  be  intro- 
duced. This  usually  takes  the  form  of  a  short  normal 
to  the  motives,  being  placed  at  their  point  of  contact 


104 


DECORATIVE    APPLICATION. 


(Fig.  35,  a  and  b).  Sometimes,  however,  it  circles 
around  the  point  of  contact  or  is  otherwise  disposed ; 
in  that  case  the  lines  of  the  tie  and  the  original  motive 
may  be  either  tangent  or  normal  to  each  other  (Fig. 
35,  c).  Sometimes  the  tie  not  only  simulates,  but 
actually  is  a  fastening  which  holds  the  elements  to- 
gether. Its  counterpart  in  architecture  is  the  impost 
moulding  at  the  springing  of  an  arch.  We  remember 
that  the  eye  always  feels  the  need  of  a  normal  of  some 


a 


4 


C. 


Fig.  35. 

sort  when  parallelism  occurs  between  the  lines  of  two 
motives,  or  when— as  with  a  curve  and  straight  line 
—one  element  is  continued  by  another. 

There  are  two  exceptions  to  the  foregoing  rule ;  in 
them  the  tie  may  be  omitted.  They  occur  when  mo- 
tives cover  each  other,  forming  an  interlaced  decora- 
tion ;  and  when,  as  in  mosaic,  the  motives  seem  fitted 
one  into  the  other,  built  into  a  space  as  are  blocks  in 
a  box.  Even  here,  a  break  or  normal,  introduced  as 
a  contrast  at  the  point  of  contact  of  the  motives,  is  a 
welcome  addition  (Fig.  36,  a,  a',  b,  b').  When  an 
interlaced  decoration  is  used,  care  must  be  exercised 
that  the  elements  alternate,  one  first  in  front  of,  and 
then  behind  the  other,  as  in  an  actual  plaited  design. 

It  is  often  unwise  to  allow  a  motive  surrounded  by 


CONTINUITY    OF    MOTIVES. 


105 


a  frame  to  become  tangent  to  the  frame;  in  such  a 
case  the  design  has  a  tendency  to  appear  crowded. 
Mayeux  suggests,  as  a  preferable  solution,  that  where 


a. 


aJ. 


W///////////M 


Fig.  36. 

the  size  of  the  frame  is  given  and  the  motive  cannot 
well  be  reduced,  it  be  augmented  and  allowed  to  pass 
over  or  under  the  frame. 

C.  If  the  motives  cross,  no  tie  is  necessary ;  but  in 
order  that  a  good  contrast  of  line  exists,  the  directions 
taken  by  the  elements  at  the  point  of  intersection 
should  be  as  nearly  perpendicular  to  each  other  as 
possible  (Fig.  37). 

Here  again,  when  a  plaiting  or  interlacing  occurs, 


106  DECOEATIVE    APPLICATION. 

the  motives  should  alternate  as  in  nature.  This  ap- 
plies not  only  to  lines  and  curves,  etc.,  but  to  the  com- 
bining of  any  decorative  design,  whatever  its  compo- 
sition—invented objects,  plants,  or  even  figures. 


Fig.  37. 


Last  of  all,  if  the  elements  of  the  design  definitely 
suggest  natural  objects,  they  should,  in  arrangement, 
follow  the  same  plan  to  which  their  prototypes  would 
adhere.  Even  in  a  suite  of  spirals  and  volutes  por- 
traying indefinitely,  and  without  intention  on  the 
part  of  the  artist,  a  vine,  it  is  best  to  make  the  growth 
of  the  design  in  one  direction  (Fig.  38).    We  have 


root 


Fig.'  38. 

already  noted  the  necessity  of  observing  the  require- 
ments of  the  law  of  gravity,  whenever  a  composition 
suggests  verticality.  If  objects  are  pictured  stand- 
ing upon  a  base  or  hanging  from  a  definite  point,  they 
must  be  shown  in  the  position  which  the  originals 
would  need  occupy.  If  a  garland  is  portrayed,  it 
should  have  the  curve  of  a  real  garland;  if  figures 
are  introduced,  with  but  a  faint  semblance  of  reality 
given  by  the  modelling,  still  the  equilibrium  of  each 
should  be  carefully  maintained.     Fig.  39  shows  the 


BACKGKOUNDS. 


107 


absurdity  of  violating  this  apparently  evident  truth. 
We  may  only  turn  from  the  usual  aspect  of  nature 
when  marked  conventionalization  or  some  other  ex- 
planation (such,  perhaps,  as  the  implication  of  super- 
natural power  in  flying  or  floating  subjects)  sets  the 


Fig.  39. 


mind  at  rest.  Moreover,  all  figures  which  appear  to 
stand  on  something  should  have  a  visible  and  ade- 
quate support.  Any  violation  of  these— indeed,  of 
any  natural  law— is  a  negation  of  art. 

Backgrounds. 
We  may,  once  more,  follow  the  lead  of  ''La  Com- 
position Decorative,"*  and  divide  our  subject  into 
two  parts,  examining  first,  the  relation  of  intensity, 
or  value,  between  the  subject  and  its  ground,  and 
second,  their  relation  as  regards  surface. 

*  Pages  155  to  165. 


108  DECOBATIVE    APPLICATION". 

As  a  starting  point  for  the  study  of  the  first  of  these 
divisions,  Mayeux  cites  a  well  known  fact,  i.  e., ' '  That 
a  white  detail  with  a  black  ground  will  look  larger 
than  a  similar  black  detail  on  a  white  ground."* 
This  shows  us  it  is  not  immaterial  whether  we,  for  a 
certain  drawing,  decide  to  relieve  our  subject  in  dark 
or  light. 

The  advantage  of  adopting  the  scheme  of  the  light 
detail  and  dark  ground  lies  in  the  fact  that  thus  the 
subject  attains  greater  brilliancy.  One  must  refrain 
from  making  the  detail  of  the  subject  too  fine  or  deli- 
cate, for  otherwise  it  becomes  confused  and  will  not 
carry.  It  is  proper  to  use  this  method  in  the  case  of 
sculptured  details,  etc.,  which  have  a  different  ton- 
ality from  their  ground.  The  reason  is  evident,  since 
the  first  plane  will  always  receive  the  greatest  amount 
of  light,  to  darken  it  artificially  would  be  to  negative 
the  effect  of  the  relief. 

The  advantage  of  adopting  the  dark  detail  and  light 
ground  is  that  such  an  arrangement  is  always  more 
easy  to  comprehend  or  read.  To  be  convinced  one 
need  only  remember  how  much  more  legible  and 
agreeable  is  dark  printing  on  a  white  page  than  white 
printing  on  a  black  page.  The  Persians  were  noted 
advocates  of  the  dark  detail  or  subject.  One  also 
sees  examples  of  it  in  the  Italian  ''Sgraffito"  work, 
where  a  coat  of  a  white-wash  was  put  on  the  house, 
over  a  dark  coat  of  paint,  and  the  design  scraped 
through  the  outer  covering,  to  the  black  one  beneath. 
In  designs  for  wall  paper,  where  great  brilliancy  of 

*  See  also,  in  this  volume,  "  Optical  Effects,"  p.  142. 


BACKGROUNDS.  109 

subject  is  not  desirable,  where  a  decoration  which 
will  not  absorb  too  much  of  the  light  of  the  room  is 
needful,  and  confusion  and  illegibility  are  to  be 
avoided,  the  dark  subject  and  light  ground  are  espe- 
cially acceptable. 

Other  schemes  for  elucidating  a  subject  when  both 
subject  and  ground  are  of  nearly  the  same  intensity 
are  the  white  border  line  and  the  black  border  line. 
Later,  in  studying  '^optical  effects,"  we  shall  learn 
that  whenever  a  contrast  in  successive  spaces  of  dark 
and  light  is  accentuated  certain  spaces  tend  to  appear 
narrower  (see  page  143).  When  the  subject  is  lighter 
than  the  ground,  the  white  border  line,  while  accentu- 
ating the  contrast,  makes  the  motive  count  to  the 
extreme  edge ;  so,  if  the  line  is  not  too  white  in  con- 
trast to  the  general  tone  of  the  design,  the  motive  is 
not  diminished  in  size.  If  the  subject  is  darker  than 
the  background  it  might  appear  somewhat  smaller 
than  before  the  introduction  of  the  border.  The  dis- 
advantage of  the  use  of  the  white  border  is  that  it 
often  takes  to  itself  the  main  interest  of  the  design, 
and  instead  of  seeing  a  beautiful  flower  or  figure,  the 
beholder  notices  only  a  tortuous  and  aggressive  line. 

In  using  the  black  border  line,  the  subject,  if  lighter 
than  the  ground,  almost  invariably  seems  decreased 
in  size.  If  it  is  darker  than  the  ground  it  is  merely 
strengthened.  The  black  border  line  is  a  much  safer 
expedient  than  the  white  line,  as  it  has  not  the  same 
tendency  to  assert  itself. 

Sometimes  the  contrast  between  the  subject  and 
background  is  too  strong,  and  in  order  to  lessen  the 


110  DECORATIVE    APPLICATION. 

existing  harshness,  a  border  or  net  work  of  an  inter- 
mediate intensity  is  introduced.  By  recourse  to 
small  details,  breaking  up  the  edge  of  an  excessively 
dark  background,  the  same  result  may  be  attained. 
Examples  of  this  are  the  Gothic  open-work  ridge  and 
crockets,  which  prevent  the  roofs  and  spires  from  cut- 
ting into  the  sky  in  too  abrupt  a  manner ;  the  Transi- 
tion and  French  Renaissance  dormers  and  decorated 
chimneys,  such  as  one  sees  in  charming  profusion  at 
Josselyn,  Chambord,  Blois  and  other  chateaux  of  the 
period;  and  last  of  all,  our  modern  crenellated  para- 
pets, however  illogical  and  mistaken  as  a  reversion 
to  an  effete  mode  of  baronial  defence,  still  an  evidence 
of  an  aesthetic  and  highly  laudable  desire  for  a  less 
barren  line  and  a  more  subtile  contrast. 

In  studying  the  question  of  relative  sizes  of  sub- 
jects and  backgrounds,  we  may  call  to  mind  that  two 
elements  in  the  same  composition  should  only  be  of 
equal  size  when  they  exactly  repeat  each  other;  in 
other  words,  in  a  piece  of  decoration  either  the  sub- 
ject or  the  ground  should  be  decidedly  the  larger. 

When  the  motive  predominates  the  effect  is  rich 
and  broad,  but  it  may  become  heavy ;  and  care  must 
be  exercised  that  good  scale  is  retained.  The  Louis 
XIV.  rinceau  shows  this  tendency  to  heaviness,  as 
does  much  modern  work;  we  have  spoken  of  the 
detail  of  the  Paris  Opera  House,  where  so  much 
genius  is  accompanied  by  the  fault  of  overcharging 
ornament. 

When  the  ground  predominates,  decoration  be- 
comes fine  and  elegant,  but  may  easily  be  thin  and 


BACKGROUNDS. 


Ill 


weak.  Herein  lies  a  fault  of  much  of  our  American 
work,  where  the  puerile  designer,  not  having  studied 
enough  to  learn  the  motives  of  preceding  ages,  and 
without  genius  which  might  help  him  to  invent  some- 
thing of  his  own,  takes  refuge  in  a  scanty  list  of  the 
most  banal  arrangements.  His  choice  is  usually  a 
meagre  garland,  which  he  strings  out,  in  empty  frieze 
decoration,  believing  meanwhile  that  such  paucity  of 
idea  is  or  may  pass  for  ''refinement"  and  ** re- 
straint. ' ' 

The  best  examples  of  delicate  decoration  are  to  be 
found  in  the  Pompeian  work,  on  the  Greek  vases,  etc., 


Fig.  40. 

of  our  museums,  in  the  early  Italian  and  French 
Renaissance,  and  in  some  Louis  XVI.  decorations. 
The  Empire  styles,  which  succeeded  Louis  XVI.  time, 
tend  toward  the  priggish  meagreness  and  impotence 
of  the  modern  designs  just  decried. 

It  is  possible  to  consider  the  ground  as  being  in 
itself  a  motive,  rather  than  a  certain  amount  of  left- 
over space.  The  Byzantine  decorations  show  at- 
tempts in  this  direction;   and  the  Arabs  went  even 


112 


DECORATIVE    APPLICATION". 


farther,  conceiving  designs  where  the  ground  and 
subject  alike  had  the  same  form,  one  fitting  into  the 
other  (Fig.  40).  In  such  a  case,  if  there  is  great  dif- 
ference in  value  between  the  two  tones,  the  darker 
should  be  slightly  larger  than  the  lighter.  Boulle, 
one  of  the  Louis  XIV.  artists,  composed  his  inlaid 


Fig.  41. 

metal  decorations  in  furniture  design  with  a  like  skill. 
Here  the  metal  runs  out  into  the  wood;  first  as  a 
ground  to  set  off  the  design  of  the  wood,  finally  be- 
coming the  subject  itself  (Fig.  41). 

Before  abandoning  the  discussion  of  decoration 
pure  and  simple,  let  us  add  that  the  artist  should  sup- 
ply his  work  with  interesting  suggestions ;  variety  in 


DECORATION  APPLIED  TO  FORM.         113 

idea,  as  well  as  in  form,  will  give  his  designs  life  and 
color.  Knowing  how  absolutely  necessary  are  con- 
trasts of  motive,  repetitions  of  any  subject  once  fully 
expressed  must  be  avoided.  In  the  delineation  of 
individual  motives,  wherever  the  character  of  the  sub- 
ject makes  it  possible,  differences  of  weight  and  pro- 
jection should  relieve  the  monotony  which  a  more 
regular,  perhaps  more  clumsy  interpretation  would 
offer.  A  careful  study  of  Renaissance  sprays  and 
banderolles,  so  plentifully  to  be  found  as  decorations 
of  panels,  etc.,  especially  a  thoughtful  examination 
of  the  earlier  Italian  Renaissance  examples,  where 
flowers  and  other  important  motives,  in  higher  relief, 
are  imited  by  tendrils,  delicately  half  imbedded  in 
the  background,  will  be  the  best  mode  of  gaining  a 
true  conception  of  the  sentiment  which  must  pervade 
really  artistic  work.  In  thus  reverting  to  the  master- 
pieces of  the  past,  an  artist  may  make  a  useful  com- 
parison, noting  that  however  beautiful  the  French 
Francis  I.  bas-relief  decorations,  they  are  far  sur- 
passed by  their  prototypes,  the  characteristic  of  the 
former  being  a  rather  too  uniform  height  of  projec- 
tion, while  the  latter  have  the  subtle  play  of  light  and 
shade  the  most  faultfinding  critic  or  ardent  lover  of 
art  could  ask. 

3.  The  Application  of  Decoration  to  Form. 
The  general  rule  for  the  adaptation  of  decoration  to 
a  particular  form  is  that  the  decoration  shall  har- 
monize, in  character  and  arrangement,  with  the  form. 
Thus,  in  the  choice  of  our  decorative  motives,  we 
9 


114  DECOKATIVE    APPLICATION. 

should  not  only  consult  the  ultimate  use,  etc.,  of  the 
object,  but  should  select  elements  which  can  easily  be 
placed  upon  the  shape  in  hand.  Sometimes  a  simple 
form  leaves  the  artist  more  or  less  free,  and  he  may 
then  choose  one  of  two  possible  general  schemes. 

In  certain  cases,  it  may  be  suitable  to  make  a  design 
covering  the  whole  surface,  without  definite  division ; 
in  others,  better  to  divide  the  surface  into  several 
smaller  spaces,  each,  of  course,  relating  to  its  neigh- 
bor, and  possibly  to  a  central  subject,  but  still  quite 
distinct  and  even  complete  in  its  own  dominion. 

As  an  example :  for  one  elevation,  it  may  be  wise  to 
embrace  the  whole  height  of  several  stories,  in  a  single 
order,  as  the  Louis  XIV.  architects  were  prone  to  do, 
while  in  a  second,  the  artist  may  properly  follow  the 
Italian  or  Francis  I.  scheme,  and  mark  each  floor  level 
by  a  dividing  course  of  mouldings,  effectually  cutting 
the  facade  up  into  superposed  horizontal  bands.  The 
former  of  these,  being  the  more  concentrated,  usually 
gives  the  greater  decorative  effect;  but  the  second 
may  still  have  decided  charm,  for  the  sake  of  scale, 
etc.,  may  be  advisable  in  large  compositions,  and 
should  always  be  used  where  a  logical  reason  for  its 
adoption  can  be  advanced.* 

When  considering  the  form  only  of  decorative  mo- 
tives we  divided  them  into  two  categories  —  those  of 
two  dimensions  and  those  of  three  dimensions.  In 
the  same  order,  we  shall  take  up  the  application  of 
decoration  to  form. 


*  It  seems  most  illogical  to  make  a  facade,  like  that  of  the  colon- 
nade of  the  Louvre,  which  had  no  relation  with  the  constructions 
behind  it. 


DECOEATION  APPLIED  TO  FORM. 


115 


(a)  Keeping  our  general  rule  in  mind,  we  conclude 
that  if  the  silhouette,  or  other  characteristic  feature 
of  a  plane  form,  offer  certain  peculiarities  the  deco- 
ration should  recognize  them.  When  divisions  are 
used  they  must  follow  the  lead  of  the  dominant  lines 
of  the  primary  form.  In  a  faQade,  divisions  will  usu- 
ally be  horizontal  or  vertical.  If  an  arch  or  curve  is 
introduced  the  axes  would  be  horizontal  and  vertical. 
Only  in  a  staircase,  or  other  such  aggressive  construc- 
tion—the octagonal  staircase  at  Blois,  for  instance- 
would  an  inclined  line  be  introduced.     For  a  flat  hori- 


®<^ 


o 


Fig.  42. 

zontal  decoration  the  silhouette  would  probably  de- 
termine a  more  intricate  arrangement. 

The  principal  lines  of  the  silhouette,  etc.,  still  indi- 
cating the  direction  of  the  dividing  lines  of  the  decor- 
ation, we  should  have,  as  in  Fig.  42,  a  peculiar  ar- 
rangement for  each  particular  form.  Especially  in 
a  vertical  circle  or  oval  should  care  be  exercised  that 
the  vertical  design,  necessarily  more  or  less  free  in 
this  case,  harmonize  in  detail  with  the  curved  sil- 
houette. 

An  exception,  in  cases  of  very  simple  outlines,  may 
be  the  use  of  obliques  or  spirals.  The  obliques,  how- 
ever rigidly  parallel,  should,  of  course,  not  make  too 


116 


DECORATIVE    APPLICATION. 


weak  an  angle  with  the  contour,  and  the  spirals  should 
have  a  center  in  common  with  the  silhouette.  More- 
over, toward  the  outer  edge,  the  spirals  should  either 
make  a  strong  angle  with  the  silhouette  or  should  be- 
come tangent  to  it. 

(b)  Again,  we  refer  to  our  general  rule  and  ex- 
amine the  form  at  our  disposal,  seeking  to  discover 
the  dominant  scheme  of  the  modelling.  If  the  object 
presents  an  axis  of  symmetry,  our  decoration  should 
conform  to  the  same  axis;  if  the  object  presents  a 
definite  tendency  in  a  certain  direction,  our  decora- 
tion should  exhibit  a  like  tendency  (Fig.  43). 


f.    -K'M  V7~^^-  ''^^a^ 


Fig.  43. 


Thus,  as  we  noted  in  our  discussion  of  scale  (page 
66),  we  even  find  an  exception  to  the  rule  forbidding 
the  smaller  repetition  of  an  element  in  the  graduated 
ornament  proper  if  the  form  diminishes  in  width  or 
size.  One  sees  this  on  certain  vases,  etc.  (Fig.  44). 
Such  a  decoration  seems  to  act  as  a  support  for  the 


DECOBATION  APPLIED  TO  FORM. 


117 


object.      Other  examples   of   graduated   decoration 
are  seen  in  the  classical  caissons  of  domes,  etc. 


Fig.  44. 

When  divisions  are  used,  the  generatrices  of  the  sur- 
face should  determine  the  directions  of  the  divisions 
(Fig.  45,  a  and  b) ;  otherwise  the  decoration,  sanely- 
conceived  from  one  point  of  view,  becomes  distorted 
as  it  follows  the  foreign  law  to  which  the  form  ad- 
heres.   A  glance  at  c  of  Fig.  45  will  show  this.    In 


Fig.  45. 


Fig.  45,  d,  the  principal  line,  a  human  figure,  would 
naturally  be  straight  in  space,  and  so  is  badly  chosen 
to  follow  the  distorted  form  of  the  vase.  Neverthe- 
less, in  elevation  it  seems  suitable  enough. 


118 


DECOEATIVE    APPLICATION. 


This  is  an  exceedingly  easy  rule  to  apply,  yet  it  is 
continually  disregarded  in  practice.  When  decora- 
ting the  interior  of  a  dome  or  coved  surface,  how 
many  artists  have  made  the  mistake  of  using  curves, 
circles,  obliques,  octagons,  etc.,  imagining  that  because 
they  seemed  to  fall  into  place  in  the  crude  sketch  they 
would  appear  quite  as  well  executed.     Fig.  46  shows 


Fig.  46. 


a  cove  thus  wrongly  treated.  The  circles,  seen  at  an 
angle,  take  the  shape  of  lima-beans ;  the  symmetrical 
octagons  become  distorted  agglomerations  of  curved 
lines,  and  the  whole  loses  any  claim  to  beauty. 

Small  circles  and  very  short  obliques  may  some- 
times be  used,  because  limited  portions  of  the  surface 
of  a  large  dome  approximate  a  plane ;  but  dominating 
lines  should  always  be  parallel  or  perpendicular  to 
the  generatrices.  When  a  dome  is  spherical,  cylinders 
whose  axes  pass  through  the  center  of  the  sphere  make 
an  admissible  intersection. 

As  with  forms  of  two  dimensions,  the  only  real  ex- 
ceptions to  these  rules  are  for  obliques,  all  rigidly 
parallel,  or  for  spirals  having  a  center  in  common 


DECORATION  APPLIED  TO  FORM. 


119 


with  the  underlying  surface.  Even  with  these  restric- 
tions the  result  is  not  usually  very  happy ;  the  oblique 
lines  tend  to  make  the  decoration  appear  twisted  and 
out  of  plumb.  Nevertheless,  certain  Chinese  vases 
and  baroque  Renaissance  columns  present  what  might 
be  called  a  solution.         . 

Perhaps  the  best  illustrations  of  the  proper  appli- 


FiG.  47. 

cation  of  decoration  to  form  are  to  be  found  in  the 
Greek  or  classical  sculptured  mouldings.  Fig.  47 
shows  a  set  of  these,  and  on  examination  one  notes 
how  appropriate  each  design  is  to  the  corresponding 
underlying  form. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Optical.  Effects. 

As  remarked,  within  certain  limits  the  appearance 
of  an  object  is  a  variable  quantity.  The  piece  of 
decoration,  so  rich  and  full  of  interest  against  a  simple 
background,  looks  weak  and  insipid  surrounded  by  a 
more  virile  design. 

In  such  measure  as  the  brilliancy  of  one  composi- 
tion may  assert  itself  over  and  destroy  that  of  its 
neighbor,  aggressive  qualities  of  one  line  may  create  a 
contrast  detrimental  to  lines  with  which  it  is  in  juxta- 
position. In  other  words,  because  a  line  is  really 
straight,  it  does  not  at  all  follow  that  it  must  look  so 
(Fig.48,  &). 

The  principle  here  involved  is  a  wide-reaching  one, 
and  we  should  do  wrong  not  to  recognize,  master  and 
turn  to  account  so  important  a  factor  in  design.  In 
so  doing— in  making  our  lines  crooked,  perhaps,  that 
they  may  appear  straight— although  a  deception 
seems  involved,  we  are  really  more  honest  than  we 
know.  For  we  are  thus  asserting  the  great  truth, 
namely,  what  is  needful  in  art  is  that  which  will 
satisfy  the  human  perceptions,  not  a  mathematically 
determined  conglomeration  of  lines  or  forms.  It  is 
here  that  the  hopeful  artist  often  goes  astray,  merely 
because  he  wishes  to  do  what  is  considered  correct, 
imagining  that  a  picture  of  a  certain  thing  or  an  ad- 

120 


OPTICAIi    EFFECTS.  121 

herence  to  definite  rules  will  be  required  of  him.  The 
old  Greeks  knew  better  when  they  gave  ideal  propor- 
tions to  their  statues  and  curved  the  lines  of  their 
temples. 

The  different  categories  into  which  the  study  of 
optical  effects  might  be  divided  are  so  bound  up,  one 
within  the  other,  that  it  seems  unwise  to  attempt  to 
delineate  hard  and  fast  cases.  For  the  sake  of  some 
fealty  to  method,  however,  we  shall  consider:  first, 
the  optical  effects  of  line;  second,  those  of  value; 
third,  those  of  color ;  fourth,  those  of  contrast  in  de- 
sign. Also,  we  may  distinguish  the  effects  which 
exist  as  characteristic  of  peculiar  arrangements  and 
those  which  appear  as  a  result  of  the  special  position 
of  an  object  or  point  from  which  it  is  seen. 

Different  psychologists  have  advanced  different 
theories  to  explain  these  illusions.  Titchener,  whom 
we  shall  cite  in  the  following  pages,  follows  Wundt  's 
theory  in  general,  i.  e.*  that  the  illusions  are  ''mat- 
ters of  perception,  not  of  judgment. ' '  However,  he 
adds  on  the  same  page  that  in  reality  many  illusions 
are  '*  'the  resultant  of  several  simultaneous  tenden- 
cies* (Sanford)  and  that  Wundt 's  principles  ought, 
accordingly,  to  be  supplemented  by  others."  In 
any  event,  what  is  pertinent  to  the  artist  is  not  the 
reason,  but  the  result. 

When  two  straight  lines  come  together  or  cross  at 

*  Titchener,  "  Experimental  Psychology,"  New  York,  Macmillan, 
1901,  Vol.  I.,  Part  I.,  p.  152.  Here  it  may  be  well  to  say  that  a 
very  complete  list  of  the  writings  on  this  most  interesting  subject, 
Optical  Illusions,  is  to  be  found  in  Mr.  Titchener's  "Experimental 
Psychology,"  Vol.  I.,  part  II.,  pp.  305-309. 


122 


DECORATIVE    APPLICATION. 


an  angle  of  less  than  90°  the  acute  angle  between 
them  appears  slightly  greater  than  is  really  the  case. 
In  other  words,  the  angle  of  two  converging  straight 
lines  tends  in  appearance  toward  the  right  angle. 
The  more  acute  the  angle  the  more  this  tendency  is 
exaggerated.  If  one  line  is  more  definite— blacker, 
broader,  or  in  any  way  more  visible— than  the  other, 
it  is  the  less  affected  of  the  two. 

Titchener  expresses  this  as  follows:*  ''The  general 
formula  is  that  small  angles  *  *  *  are  overestimated 
and  obtuse  angles  underestimated  in  comparison  with 
them." 

There  are  many  interesting  results  of  this  optical 
illusion.    If  (Fig.  48,  a  and  h)  we  alternate  the  direc- 


Fig.  48. 

tion  of  sets  of  parallel  lines,  the  straight  line  which 
makes  an  acute  angle  with  them  appears  crooked. 
Two  parallel  lines  (Fig.  48,  h)  seem  to  converge  and 
successively  diverge  if  contrasted  with  sets  of  par- 
allels opposite  in  direction  to  each  other.-)- 

When  a  curve  meets  or  is  crossed  by  a  straight  line 
the  same  tendencies  are  exhibited  by  curve  and  line, 
i.  e.,  the  directions  of  the  line  and  of  the  tangent  to 

*"  Experimental  Psychology,"  Vol.  I.,  part  II.,  p.  315. 
f  See    Helmholtz,    "  Physiologischen    Optik,"    Leipzig,    1867,    pp. 
665-566. 


OPTICAL.    EFFECTS.  123 

the  curve  at  the  point  of  intersection  seems  slightly 
changed.*  An  immediate  result  of  the  last  is  that  a 
circle,  circumscribing,  or  circumscribed  by  a  square, 
looks  as  though  it  were  composed  of  four  arcs  with 
different  centers  (Fig.  48,  c  and  d).  Probably  in  c,  the 
definite  angles  of  the  square  placed  in  contrast  to  the 
curve  accentuate  this  effect  and  so  make  the  circle 
look  even  flatter  at  the  points  where  they  touch 
it;  the  more  so,  as,  when  the  angles  become  exterior 
angles  (e  of  Fig.  48),  one  notices  the  same  flatness, 
while  the  curve  might  be  expected  to  respond  to  the 
straight  lines  nearest  it  and  become,  on  the  con- 
trary, more  round. 

If  a  flat  arc  of  a  circle  is  crossed  in  two  points  by  a 
straight  line,  the  line  seems  curved  away  from  the  arc. 
A  result  of  this  (even  when  line  and  curve  stop  a  little 
short  of  the  points  of  intersection)  is  the  disagreeable 
aspect  which  a  square-headed  window  presents  when 
contrasted  with  a  segmental,  constructional  arch 
above  it.  The  flat  lintel  seems  to  curve  in  the  op- 
posite direction  and  apparently  sags  as  though  the 
weight  were  still  too  much  for  it.  The  remedy  is  the 
slight  curving  up  of  the  under  side  of  the  lintel. 

Helmholtz  notes,  in  the  ' '  Physiologischen  Optik, '  'f 
that  if  one  draws  an  angle  of  between  30°  and  45°, 
one  of  whose  sides  is  horizontal,  and  then  through  the 
summit  draws  a  third,  more  vertical,  line,  forming  a 
second  angle  with  the  inclined  side  of  the  first  angle, 
so  that  the  second  angle  will  in  appearance  equal  the 

*  See  Helmholtz,  "  Physiologischen  Optik,"  p.  569. 
t  P.  546. 


124  DECOKATIVE    APPLICATION. 

first,  one  always,  in  reality,  makes  the  second  larger 
than  the  first.  From  this  he  explains  the  reason  why 
the  angle  at  the  apex  of  an  equilateral  triangle,  one 
of  whose  sides  is  horizontal,  appears  more  acute  than 
the  angles  at  the  base.* 

The  following  is  another  curious  phenomenon  of 
lines  which  cross  :f  When  a  light  line  crosses  a  broad 
band,  making  an  acute  angle  with  it,  the  two  pieces 
of  the  lighter  line  must  really,  in  order  to  appear  the 
continuation  one  of  the  other,  be  parallels.  The 
points  where  these  two  pieces  touch  the  band  would 
lie  in  a  line  making  a  slightly  greater  angle  with  the 
sides  of  the  band  than  do  the  two  pieces  themselves 
(Fig.  48,/). 

A  peculiar  effect  is  noticed  when  one  looks,  with 
one  eye  only,  at  a  perpendicular  erected  on  the  middle 
of  a  horizontal.  If  the  right  eye  is  used  (the  eye 
should  fix  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  lines)  the 
angle  to  the  right  of  the  perpendicular  seems  obtuse 
and  the  angle  on  the  left  acute.  With  the  left  eye, 
the  phenomenon  is  reversed.  If  the  vertical  is  con- 
tinued below  the  horizontal,  the  lower  left-hand  angle 
seems  too  large  to  the  right  eye,  etc.:}: 

We  have  already  seen  how  parallel  lines  may  simu- 
late convergents  when  under  the  influence  of  other 
convergents.  Parallel  lines  also  exhibit,  in  peculiar 
measure,  the  vagaries  of  the  straight  line  whose  image 
is  not  in  the  center  of  the  field  of  vision.  Lean  over 
a  table  (Fig.  49) ;  it  should  be  black  and  not  shiny  by 

•  "  Physiologischen  Optik,"  pp.  546-547. 
t  See  the  "  Physiologischen  Optik,"  p.  564. 
$  See  the  "Physiologischen  Optik,"  p.  546. 


OPTICAL.    EFFECTS.  125 

preference)  and  place  three  pieces  of  paper  upon  it; 
the  first,  A,  in  the  center  of  the  field  of  vision ;  the 
other  two,  B  and  C,  as  far  off  in  the  outer  portions  of 
the  field  as  is  compatible  with  their  being  seen  dis- 
tinctly without  moving  the  eye.     Then,  still  looking 
fixedly  at  the  central  white  paper.  A,  try  to  dispose  a 
fourth,  D,  between  B  and  C,  so  that  B,  D  and  C  may 
lie  in  a  straight  line.     Almost  invariably  the  paper 
D  is  placed  too  near  the  cen-     ^ 
ter  of  the  field  of  vision,  mak-  J^^ 
ing  B,  D,  C  curve  in  toward        \ 
A.      Helmholtz     assimilates  \ 

these  curves  to  hyperbola.*  ^ 

The  distortion  just  noted  is        dI  ba 

due  in  large  measure  to  the  ,' 

spherical   aberration   of  the  ' 

eye  itself,  and  if  B,  D,  C  were         / 
really  straight  it  would  ap-    ^J 
pear  to  curve  out.    If,  then,     / 
we  have  two  parallel  lines 

and  the  eye  is  attracted  toward  a  point  between  them, 
it  might  be  possible  to  produce  an  agreeable  effect  by 
curving  them  very  slightly  in  at  the  center. 

It  is  possible  that  some  of  the  curves  apparently 
used  by  the  Greeks  in  place  of  straight  lines  in  their 
larger  temples— the  Parthenon,  for  instance— pre- 
sumably intended  to  correct  unpleasant  optical  effects, 
were,  in  essence,  the  outcome  of  the  illusion  just  de- 
scribed.! 

*  See  "  Physiologischen  Optik,"  pp.  465  and  551-554. 
t  Many   authorities   are   unwilling  to    accept   the   theory   of   an 
original  or  intentional  curving  of  the  lines  of  the  Parthenon,  although 


126  DECOKATIVE    APPLICATION. 

Passing  from  straight  lines,  let  ns  examine  curves, 
and  more  especially  circles  or  the  arcs  of  circles.  We 
need  only  pause  to  remark  that  the  ordinary  method 
of  attempting  to  compose  a  curved  line  of  short  arcs 
of  circles  is  not  only  inartistic,  but,  usually,  quite 
unsuccessful.  Unless  a  curve  of  the  second  degree 
is  used— and  then  it  should  be  geometrically  con- 
structed—all free  curves  ought  to  be  drawn  in  free 
hand.  Any  empirical  rule  for  the  perpetration  of  a 
composed  curve  is  sure  to  lead  to  ugly  '* breaks"  in 
the  line.  The  most  that  can  be  admitted  is  that  the 
desired  line  be  carefully  studied  and  drawn  in  free 
hand  and  that  a  compass  be  used  only  at  the  very  last, 
when  a  sufficient  number  of  centers  are  tentatively 
found  to  allow  of  the  different  arcs  practically  cover- 
ing the  free-hand  curve. 

The  pistolet,  or  French  curve,  is  a  makeshift,  less 
successful  than  the  compass. 
If  we  try  to  judge  by  eye  the  amount  of  curvature 

of  an  arc  we  may  generally 

accept   as   a   fact   that,    the 

/      shorter    the    arc— the     less 

i^i^y/  number  of  degrees  it  is  mea- 

v'  sured  by— the  flatter   (than 

I  its  real  curvature)   it  looks. 

In  other  words,  of  two  arcs, 

one  measured  by  an  angle  of  10°  and  the  other  by  an 

angle  of  45°,  but  both  described  with  the  same  radius, 


II 


they  may  admit  something  of  the  sort  in  other  Greek  temples.  See 
"  Die  Baustile,"  zweiter  theil.  Die  Baukunst  der  Griechen,  by  Dr. 
Josef  Durm,  Darmstadt,  1892,  pp.  168-179.  Also  see  Penrose's 
description  of  the  Parthenon,  etc. 


OPTICAL    EFFECTS. 


127 


the  former  will  seem  to  have  been  described  with  a 
greater  radius  than  the  latter  (Fig.  50). 

This  is  undoubtedly  one  reason  why  parallel  or 
concentric  curves  cut,  and  thus,  terminated  by 
straight  lines,  or  even  by  other  curves,  so  that  they 
are  measured  by  unequal  angles,  seem  to  be  excentric, 
the  curve  measured  by  the  smaller  angle  having  its 
radius  apparently  lengthened  (Fig.  51,  a  and  b).  A 
greater  cause  for  the  last  mentioned  effect,  at  least  as 
far  as  a  of  Fig.  51  is  concerned,  probably  lies  in  the 
fact  that  the  eye,  in  judging  the  width  of  the  curved 
space  between  the  concentric  curves,  tends  at  their 
ends,  to  measure  from  the  end  of  one  line  to  that  of 
the  other,  while  in  the  middle  of  the  curves  it  travels 


Fig.  51. 

—as  it  rightly  should— along  the  normals  to  the 
curves.  Thus  the  curves  look  wider  apart  at  their 
ends  than  in  the  middle  (Fig.  51,  c). 

If  the  secant  lines  are  heavily  drawn  in,  they  them- 
selves will  somewhat  affect  the  directions  of  the 
curves.    This  influence,  however,  is  much  less  power- 


128 


DECOKATIVE    APPLICATION. 


ful  than  that  emanating  from  the  two  causes  pre- 
viously noted. 

In  the  common  architectural  arrangement  of  Fig. 
52  the  outer  circles  A  and  B  should  not  be  drawn 
from  the  same  centers  as  the  inner  ones  at  C.  Since 
the  angles  which  measure  A  and  B  are  smaller  than 
the  angle  which  measured  C,  the  radii  AO'  and  J50", 


Fig.  52. 

should,  in  order  to  make  the  curves  look  concentric, 
be  shortened  and  the  centers  0'  and  0"  placed  farther 
out  than  0. 

It  may  be  worth  while  to  pause  for  a  moment  to 
examine  some  of  the  geometrical  laws  that  govern  the 
displacing  of  the  centers  of  successive  arcs  of  circles, 
which,  although  limited  by  secant  lines,  we  yet  wish 
to  have  seem  concentric.  We  shall  analyze  only 
usual  cases  where  the  secants  are  equidistant  from  the 


OPTICAL.    EFFECTS. 


129 


Fig.  53. 


geometrical  center  of  the  figure,  and  thus  admit  of 
an  axis  of  symmetry. 

Instead  of  considering  the  length  of  radius  (^0', 
Fig.  53)  necessary  to  make  a  first  arc,  BC,  measured 
by  a  smaller  angle  than  a 
second.  A,  look  as  though 
it  were  concentric  to  the 
second,  we  may  begin  by 
examining  the  new  inclina- 
tion, which  the  tangent  BI, 
at  the  end  of  the  first  arc, 
must  assume.  We  shall 
call  the  angle  a  between 
the  tangents  of  the  original 
and  corrected  arcs,  the 
' '  angle  of  correction. ' ' 

This  angle  a  will  be  equal  to  the  angle  a  between 
the  normals  of  the  same  arcs— from  B  to  their  centers. 

The  amount  of  curvature  in  successive  circles 
drawn  from  a  common  center  becomes  less  as  the 
radius  increases.  A  short  arc,  drawn  with  a  radius 
of  infinite  length,  may  be  considered  a  straight  line. 

Inasmuch  as,  in  correcting  successive  concentric 
arcs  which  have  been  limited  in  a  peculiar  manner, 
we  are  trying  to  regain  the  effect  which  the  complete 
circles  would  produce,  we  readily  see  that  each  cor- 
rected arc,  as  it  recedes  from  the  center,  must  be  suc- 
cessively flatter  than  its  predecessor,  and  that  the  last 
angle  of  correction  can  thus  not  exceed  a  certain  limit. 

Let  us  take  a  definite  example  of  concentric  arcs 
limited  by  straight  secant  lines  (Fig.  54),  the  secants 
10 


130  DECORATIVE    APPLICATION. 

being  inclined  to  each  other  so  that  their  point  of 
intersection  will  not  fall  between  the  center  0  and  any 
of  the  arcs  under  consideration.  (If  the  point  of 
intersection  of  the  secants  lay  between  the  center  0 
and  the  arcs,  as  in  Fig.  51,  h,  the  tendency  of  the 
angle  of  correction  to  increase  as  the  radius  increases, 
and  of  which  we  are  about  to  speak, 
would  merely  be  reversed.) 

We  have  said  that,  in  general,  the 
two  principal  causes  for  the  need  of 
correction  exhibited  by  the  outer 
arcs  lie,  first,  in  the  fact  that  they 
are  measured  successively  by  small- 
er angles,  and  second,  in  the  fact  that 
Fig.  54.  ^\^q  distance  between  the  ends  of  any 

two  arcs  along  the  secant  (as  from  J.  to  5)  is  longer 
than  the  distance  along  their  normal  (from  A  to  B'  or 
from  ^1  to  B^).  This  is  progressively  true,  from 
the  circle  which  is  tangent  to  the  secants,  up  to  the 
point  where  the  secants  converge,  when  it  is  reversed. 
If  the  secants  were  parallel  or  divergent  it  would, 
naturally,  be  true  to  infinity.  Both  the  angles  which 
measure  the  arcs,  however,  and  the  proportions 
between  the  secant  and  normal  inter-arc  distances 
decrease  less  and  less  rapidly  as  the  arcs  recede  from 
the  center. 

We  may  therefore  conclude  that  the  successive 
angles  of  correction,  which  depend  on  the  relations 
just  analyzed,  must  progress  from  zero,  at  the  tan- 
gent to  the  secants  (for  the  tangent  circle  being  com- 
plete needs  no  correction),  to  a  certain  greatest  value, 
which  greatest  value,  if  the  secants  are  convergent, 


OPTICAL    EFFECTS.  131 

will  be  at  their  point  of  intersection:  while  if  they 
are  parallel  or  divergent  it  will  be  at  infinity.  More- 
over, this  maximum  at  infinity  will  be  the  amount  of 
correction  which  the  arc  at  infinity  (whose  radius  in 
the  case  of  parallel  secants  may  be  considered  par- 
allel to  the  secants)  would  need  to  make  it  appear  to 
come  from  the  general  center. 

We  may  also  further  conclude  that  the  ratio  of 
increase  of  the  angles  is  a  continually  decreasing 
ratio,  the  rate  of  increase  being  maximum  at  the 
circle  tangent  to  the  secants  and  zero  at  infinity. 

We  have  said  that  the  maximum  angle  of  the  cor- 
rection for  arcs  between  parallels  and  divergents  is 
at  infinity.  This  maximum  is  variable  in  the  cases 
of  secants  differently  placed  as  regards  the  center. 

The  farther  the  secant  is  from  the  center,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  longer  the  radius  of  the  circle  tan- 
gent to  the  secants,  the  greater  is  the  difference  be- 
tween the  distance  from  a  given  point  on  the  secant, 
to  the  point  of  tangency,  and  the  distance  from  the 
same  point,  along  a  normal  of  the  circle,  to  the  point 
where  the  normal  cuts  the  circle.  This  difference, 
with  the  point  at  infinity,  is  equal  to  the  radius  of 
the  tangent  circle;  and  as  it  is  just  this  difference 
which  is  one  of  the  two  causes  of  the  need  for  correc- 
tion of  the  arc  at  infinity,  we  see  that  the  greater  the 
distance  of  the  secant  from  the  center,  the  greater 
will  be  the  angle  of  correction.  (The  radius  of  the 
tangent  circle  being  finite,  the  maximum  of  compari- 
son between  the  arcs  is  constant,  180°-0°.) 

We  have  also  noted  that  the  greater  the  angle  by 
which  an  arc  is  measured,  the  more  readily  is  the 


132 


DECOEATIVE    APPLICATION". 


center  placed  and  the  less  need  is  there  for  correc- 
tion. Moreover,  this  need  entirely  disappears  when 
the  circle  is  complete  and  exists  only  slightly  for  the 
half  circle,  while  it  is  maximum  when  the  arc  is  re- 
duced to  a  single  point.  Evidently,  in  our  present 
problem,  only  convergent  secants  will  give  us  an  arc 
which  is  reduced  to  a  point.  Parallel  secants,  how- 
ever, give  us  a  limited  arc  at  infinity ;  and  we  further 
conclude  that  the  greater  the  angle  of  divergent  se- 
cants, the  smaller  will  be  the  maximum  angle  of  cor- 
rection. 
Fig.  55  is  a  simple  approximate  geometrical  con- 


FiG.  55. 

struction  for  the  correction  of  arcs  between  parallels. 
For  a  tangent  circle  with  a  radius  of  0".0175,  and 
with  parallel  secants  the  maximum  angle  of  correc- 
tion is  about  15°.  The  line  AB  is  drawn  from  the 
point  ^  (^  is  situated  on  a  perpendicular  to  the 
secants  which  passes  through  the  center  of  the  tan- 


OPTICAL    EFFECTS.  133 

gent  circle  and  is  half  way  between  the  center  and 
the  point  where  this  perpendicular  cuts  the  tangent 
circle)  to  make  an  angle  somewhat  smaller  than  the 
maximum  angle  of  correction,  say  13°,  with  the  per- 
pendicular to  the  secants  or  to  the  axis  ol. 

We  wish  to  draw  a  corrected  circle  from  C  on  the 
secant  BC. 

Join  C  and  o,  and  on  the  middle  of  Co  erect  a  per- 
pendicular which  will  cut  AB  in  a  point  M.  From 
ilf  as  a  center,  with  Mo  as  a  radius,  describe  an  arc, 
oo'C,  which  will  cut  the  axis  ol  in  o'.  This  point  o' 
is  the  center  for  the  corrected  arc  to  pass  through  C 
and  be  limited  by  the  parallels.    We  may  deduce  a 


Fig.  56. 


more  exact  placing  of  o',  if  we  note  that  a  perpen- 
dicular, from  M  to  the  axis,  will  cut  the  axis  half 
way  between  o  and  o'.  The  angle  oCo'  between  the 
two  radii  oC  and  o'C  will  be  equal  to  the  angle  SMo, 
and  therefore  equal  to  Mo  A.    As  M  is  taken  farther 


134 


DECORATIVE    APPLICATION. 


out  on  AB,  which  means,  as  c  is  taken  farther  out  on 
•the  secant,  the  angle  MoA  tends  nearer  to  the  maxi- 
mum. 

AB  should,  theoretically,  be  a  curve,  beginning  at 
A  and  tending  to  become  a  straight  line,  making  the 
maximum  angle  of  correction  (here  15°)  with  oA. 

In  the  case  of  divergents,  a  parallel  to  one  of  the 
secants  is  drawn  through  the  center  o  (Fig.  56)  and 
the  foregoing  construction  again  carried  out.  The 
point  Oi  corresponding  to  the  center  o'  of  Fig.  55  is 
joined  to  C,  Co^  being  produced  until  it  cuts  the  axis 


Fig.  57. 

ol  in  o',  thus  giving  the  center  for  the  corrected  arc 
at  C  between  the  divergents  in  question.  The  maxi- 
mum angle  is,  in  the  present  case,  reduced  by  the 
considerable  divergence  of  the  secants  to  about  8°. 
Fig.  57  shows  a  construction  where  a  constant 
radius  is  used,  the  length  of  the  arcs  being  so  limited 
that  they  seem  concentric.    The  same  principle  of 


OPTICAL    EFFECTS.  135 

construction  is  adopted  as  in  the  foregoing  problem, 
the  maximum  angle  of  correction  being  about  8°. 
The  curved  lines  which  are  the  loci  of  the  ends  of  the 
curves  tend,  at  infinity,  to  become  parallel.  The 
maximum  angle  of  correction  should  be  the  same  as 
that  which  these  parallels  would  require.  It  is  the 
zero  point  which  is  displaced. 

The  foregoing  analysis  has  not  been  given  with 
the  intention  of  inducing  the  designer  to  use  a  geo- 
metrical construction  in  cor-  ^  ^ 
recting  concentric  arcs,  but 
merely  to  show  what  ele- 
ments, in  the  disposition  of 
the  arcs,  will  increase  or  de- 
crease the  need  of  correction. 
Inasmuch  as  the  drawing  in 
of  the  secants  in  a  design,  as 
well  as  the  presence  of  other 
lines,  would  materially  alter 
the  amount  of  correction 
needed,  it  would  be  futile  to 
attempt  anything  like  a  math- 
ematic  construction.  What  ^^^'  ^^' 
is  to  be  aimed  at  is  an  agreeable  effect ;  and  this  being 
true,  the  taste  of  the  cultured  artist  must  be  its  cre- 
ator. 

Fig.  58  shows  how  arcs  of  circles,  under  certain 
circumstances,  may  seem  quite  other  than  what  they 
really  are;  a  and  a'  are  circles  of  constant  radius 
and  b  and  6'  are  circles  from  common  centers.  In  a  the 
lower  arcs  look  flatter  than  the  upper  ones,  while  in  a' 


136  DECOKATIVE    APPLICATION. 

they  seem  almost  concentric.    In  b  the  upper  arcs 

seem  too  flat,  while  in  b'  they  all  need  some  correction. 

In  regard  to  half  circles  which  are  terminated  by 

a  normal  (as  in  the  niche  in  plan,  Fig.  59,  a),  the 

curve  always  seems  less  than  its  proper  length,  unless 

a  short  straight  line  is  added ;  in  other  words,  unless 

the  center  is  slightly  stilted.     Such  a  form  as  that  of 

Fig.  59,  G,  should  never  be  used ;  the  angle  at  ic  is  a 

weak  one  (see  pages  47  and  48). 

^^^r"'ac«j.     ^        j^  ^^^  elevation  of  an  arcade, 

ff^  \         or  arch,  with  impost  mouldings, 

/ui  \uu.     the  arc  should  be  even  more 

^if/^^^'^^'^^^^^%^  t         stilted  than  would  otherwise  be 

J^  >b'        necessary,  as,  the  beholder  be- 

/ \        ing  almost  invariably  below  the 

line  of  the  center,  the  projec- 
.„7(ii^f*^^*''^^^''*^^'^*^*^(^     tion  of  the  mouldings  cuts  off 

r        part  of  the  stilting. 
\     /^         \     /^         Passing  from  the  question  of 

"l   "  i' --|--(—      arcs,     we     examine     illusions 

Tj     '^  1    T        which  result  when  lines  radiat- 

j,jQ  gg  ing  from  a  center  are  crossed 

by  straight  lines. 
One  secant  line  seems  curved  away  from  the  center, 
because  of  the  over-estimation  of  the  acute  angles. 

Two  parallel  secants  placed  on  both  sides  of  the 
center  also  seem  bowed  around  it. 

Of  parallel  secants  on  the  same  side  of  the  center, 
the  ones  nearest  the  center  seem  much  more  curved 
about  it  than  do  the  outer  ones.  In  certain  cases, 
some  observers  see  the  secant,   farthest  out,   bend 


opticaIj  effects. 


137 


\IEC7 


A 
I 


in  at  the  middle.  When  the  problem  takes  the  fonn 
of  Fig.  60,  A,  the  outer  secant  definitely  bends  down 
or  in  toward  the  center,  especially  when  the  lower 
secant  and  two  verticals  are  blacker;  or  the  space, 
here  representing  the  window  opening,  is  darkened. 
This  is  mainly  because  the  eye  measures  the  distance 
between  the  secants,  along  the  radiating  lines,  since 
those  inclined  are  longer  than  the  more  perpendicular 
ones,  the  secants  seem  far- 
ther apart  at  the  ends. 

Another  illusion  of  Fig. 
60,  A,  interesting  to  archi- 
tects, is  that  the  radiating 
lines  do  not  seem  to  have  the 
same  center.  For  those  to- 
ward the  middle,  the  center 
recedes:  this  in  spite  of  the 
tendency  of  the  acute  angles 
toward  the  extremities  to 
make  the  inclined  lines  ap- 
pear less  so.  It  is  probably 
due  to  measuring  the  distan- 
ces between  the  secants  along 

inclined  lines.  Finding  these  less  perpendicular  to 
the  secants  than  expected,  we  judge  their  centers  of 
radiation  too  far  up.  Fig.  60,  B,  shows  the  proper 
manner  to  correct  this  illusion  when  designing  a  flat 
arch.  The  joints  of  the  voussoirs  tend  toward  the 
perpendicular  at  their  ends;  but  this  is  very  slight 
and  does  not  need  correction.  Spacing  is  done  on 
the  intrados  to  avoid  diminishing  the  keystone. 


I 


V 


I 


138  DECOKATIVE    APPLICATION. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  apparent  distortion 
which  the  spiral  gives  to  forms,  and  the  care  with 
which  it  should  be  used.  Indeed,  a  disagreeable  sen- 
sation that  the  figure  is  revolving  is  often  the  result 
of  the  use  of  spirals  and  similar  figures  centering  in 
a  point. 

All  dominant  lines  introduced  into  a  definite  con- 
tour tend  to  alter  the  apparent  shape  of  the  figure. 
Parallel  divisions  of  marked  contrast  of  value  are 
perhaps  the  most  potent  agents  in  producing  such 
distortions. 

There  are  two  opposite  causes  acting  upon  figures 
which  show  divisions.  In  the  first  place:  of  two 
equal  spaces,  one  divided  by  regular  and  impersonal 
lines  or  bands  and  the  other  counting  without  divi- 
sions, in  its  whole  length,  the  divided  space  appears 
the  longer.  Helmholtz  gives  four  examples  of  this,* 
as  reproduced  in  Fig.  61,  A,  B,  C  and  D.  In  ^4,  as  a 
better  manner  of  showing  the  principle,  ah  and  he  are 
made  to  look  equal,  he  having  divisions  across  it. 
Measurement  proves  ah  the  longer.  In.  B  a  seems 
taller  than  it  is  wide,  while  h  seems  wider  than  it  is 
high.  In  C  angles  3  and  4  seem  obtuse  and  1  and  2 
acute.  In  the  equilateral  triangles  of  D  the  angle  at 
the  apex  of  a  seems  very  much  too  acute,  while  the 
summit  of  h  is  thrown  to  the  right.  Helmholtz  adds 
that  an  empty  room  looks  smaller  than  a  furnished 
one ;  a  figured  wall,  larger  than  a  plain  one,  and  that 
ladies'  dresses,  with  horizontal  stripes,  make  the  fig- 
ure appear  taller— "Damenkleider  mit  Querstrichen 
lassen  die  Figur  hoher  erscheinen. ' ' 

*  "  Physiologischen  Optik,"  p.  563. 


OPTICAL    EFFECTS. 


139 


•b  «•  jrMtv  t^ii)  be 


A 

a  h  equal  toh 


Y 

a 


tY. 


u 

a 

Fig.  61. 


140  DECOEATIVE    APPLICATION. 

The  only  trouble  is  that  experience  does  not  always 
carry  this  out.  It  would  be  almost  impossible  to 
induce  either  a  stout  woman  or  her  dressmaker  to  put 
horizontal  stripes,  instead  of  vertical  ones,  on  the 
dress  which  is  to  reduce  the  appearance  of  fatness. 
Moreover,  the  usual  trick  for  making  a  room  seem 
high  is  to  put  vertical  stripes  on  the  wall  from  top 
to  bottom. 

An  explanation  is  to  be  found  in  Fig.  61,  E.  Here, 
at  a  first  glance,  a  seems  broader  than  it  is  high  and 
b  higher  than  it  is  wide.  The  fact  that  the  divisions 
take  on  an  importance  of  their  own  and  thus  induce 
the  observer  to  ignore  that  portion  of  the  figure  which 
lies  outside  of  the  limit  set  by  them  (marked  by  I  in 
both  figures)  tends  to  make  the  design  an  apparent 
confutation  of  Helmholtz's  theory.  It  is  only  when 
the  observer  has  taken  careful  cognizance  of  the 
whole  figure  that  the  anticipated,  previously  noted 
effect  tardily  asserts  itself. 

Titchener,*  following  Wundt,  gives  the  psycho- 
physical explanation  of  the  foregoing.  He  says  that 
we  estimate  such  distances  as  that  of  Fig.  61,  A,  by 
eye  movements.  In  such  figures  as  61,  A',  the  eye  is 
arrested  by  the  middle  division  of  a,  the  tendency  is 
to  take  in  the  line  as  a  whole  by  a  single  fixation  and 
a,  really  equal  to  b,  seems  the  shorter.  On  the  next 
page  Titchener  gives  Wundt 's  law  for  this:  ''Dis- 
tances, the  traversing  of  which  requires  a  movement 
of  regard  that  is  interrupted  by  fixation-points  or 
prescribed  by  fixation-lines,  appear  longer  than  dis- 

*"  Experimental  Psychology,"  Vol.  1,  Part  II.,  p.  313. 


OPTICAL    EFFECTS.  141 

tances  that  can  be  traversed  without  fixation-points 
or  in  complete  freedom,  without  prescription  of 
path." 

Therefore,  if  two  striking  vertical  bands  are  made 
from  top  to  bottom  of  a  skirt  it  will  seem  longer  than 
otherwise.  Also,  if  bands  go  from  floor  to  ceiling 
of  a  room,  the  eye  does  not  interest  itself  in  the  hori- 
zontal direction,  follows  them  in  the  vertical,  and  the 
whole  height  counts.  Probably  if  impersonal,  there- 
fore regular  divisions  could  be  made  in  the  length 
of  the  bands,  the  height  would  be  further  increased. 

Another  example  of  illusions  of  extent  cited  by 
Titchener*  is  the  Miiller-Lyer  illusion  (Fig.  61,  J^— 
in  all  three  cases  the  middle  line  of  b  seems  longer 
than  that  of  a).  Wundt's  lawf  is  as  follows:  *'A 
distance  which,  in  virtue  of  its  fixation-lines,  offers 
a  motive  to  the  continuance  of  movement  in  the  same 
direction  is  adjudged  greater  and  a  distance  which 
in  virtue  of  similar  lines  in  opposite  direction,  offers 
a  motive  to  the  inhibition  of  movement  is  adjudged 
less,  than  an  objectively  equal  distance  in  the  travers- 
ing of  which  such  motives  are  not  operative. ' ' 

The  illusions  of  Oppel,  Delboeuf  and  Kundt  can  be 
seen  in  a  figure  composed  of  a  vertical  and  horizontal 
line,  equal  in  length  and  crossing  through  the  middle 
point  of  each.:}:  *'In  binocular  vision  the  vertical 
line  appears  longer  than  the  horizontal  (Oppel),  and 
the  upper  vertical  limb  appears  longer  than  the  lower 


*  "  Experimental  Psychology,"  Vol.  I.,  Part  I.,  p.   159. 
t  Ibid.,  Vol.  I.,  Part  II.,  p.  314. 
t  Ibid.,  Vol.  I.,  Part  II.,  p.  315. 


142 


DECORATIVE    APPLICATION. 


(Delboeuf).  In  monocular  vision  the  outer  hori- 
zontal limb  appears  longer  than  the  inner  (Kundt)." 
As  a  result  of  the  foregoing,  if  one  wishes  a  square 
to  look  square  the  interior  decoration  must  be  con- 
ceived (as  is  the  square  itself)  with  regard  to  two  like 
axes  of  composition,  perpendicular  to  the  sides  of  the 
figure.     The  illusion  of  Oppel  might  induce  us  to 


Fig.  62. 

slightly  lessen  the  height  of  the  whole.  In  Fig.  62 
a,  h,  c  and  g  are  faulty  examples,  while  d,  e,  f  and  Ti 
are  good.  Especially  in  a  repeated  motive  or  suite 
should  the  principle  of  composition  remain  the  same ; 
and  we  may  go  even  farther  and  say  that  the  main 
dividing  lines  must  enclose  elements  where  the  shape 
and  actual  size  balance  each  other,  values  being  ap- 
proximately maintained. 

This  question  of  contrasts  .of  value  is  most  impor- 
tant. Usually  the  greater  the  contrast  the  greater  is 
the  personality  of  a  division.  But  two  other  factors, 
of  irradiation  in  the  eye  and  of  diffusion  of  the  light 
rays,  cause  definite  and  dominant  effects.  Already, 
under  ''Backgrounds"  (page  108),  the  apparent  dif- 
ference in  size  between  a  white  detail  on  a  black 
ground  and  an  equally  large  black  detail  on  a  white 
ground  was  mentioned.  This  is  noticeable  in  the 
squares  of  Fig.  63,  a*     Moreover,  if  the  accommo- 

*  See  also  Helraholtz,  "  Physiologischen  Optik,"  p.  321. 


OPTICAL    EFFECTS. 


143 


dation  of  the  eye  becomes 


d. 

mm 

1 

^n 

^^mf'ici'ff. 

'^w^f^^^m 

^B^^ 

■ 

l^ft^H 

1 

■ 

Fig.  63. 


less  exact  the  black  square 
diminishes  and  the  white 
one  augments.  Again,  in 
equally  wide  alternating 
black  and  white  bands  the 
white,  still  encroaching 
on  the  black,  seems  the 
wider.  Other  examples 
of  the  same  are  h  (Fig. 
63),  in  which  there  seems 
to  be  a  white  diagonal 
through  the  figure;  c 
(same  figure),  in  which 
the  black  bands  broaden 
out,  as  they  get  lighter, 
and  d,  the  white  bands 
broadening  out  as  they 
get  lighter.  In  c  a  curi- 
ous blending  of  two  ef- 
fects is  seen;  for,  when 
the  figure  is  badly  out  of 
focus,  the  total  width  of 
the  darker  portion  is 
much  narrower  than  that 
of  the  portion  where  the 
bands  divide  the  width. 
The  black  here,  being  on 
the  outside,  helps  the  di- 
vided portion  in  counting 
to  the  full  extent. 

As  suggested,  these  ef- 
fects of  contrast  are  due 


144  DECOKATIVE    APPLICATION. 

to  irradiation  and  to  the  circles  of  diffusion  of  the 
points  of  light  lapping  over  on  the  dark  ground.  A 
white  space  may  seem  diminished  from  the  inverse  of 
the  latter  cause,  provided  the  black  bands  on  either 
side  of  it  are  narrower  than  the  diameter  of  the 
circles  of  diffusion  caused  by  the  faulty  accommoda- 
tion of  the  eye.*  In  Fig.  63,  e,  the  white  strip  of  the 
same  width  in  all  its  height  seems  to  have  the  form 
of  an  Indian  club,  while  the  narrow  black  strips  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  figure  broaden  out  at  the  end. 
In  the  indication  of  a  ''rendu"  it  is  necessary  to 
make  small,  light  succeeding  motives  or  spaces,  such 
as  balustres,  etc.,  which  count  individually,  much 
wider  than  they  would  be  in  nature.  This  is  because 
the  contrast  between  the  value  of  the  motives  and  the 
darker  intervals  between  them  is  usually  accentuated 
in  the  drawing ;  and  the  reduced  size  of  the  drawing 
allows  of  the  width  of  the  pictured  interval  being  less 
than  the  width  of  the  circles  of  diffusion  where  its 
width  in  execution  would  not.  An  additional  impor- 
tant reason  for  augmenting  the  width  of  the  motive 
and  lessening  that  of  the  space  is  that  the  line  of  the 
drawing  counts  with  the  darker  value,  thus  encroach- 
ing the  more  on  the  motive  when  once  the  rendering 
is  finished.  As  it  is  almost  impossible  to  avoid  ' '  run- 
ning over  the  line"  in  a  small  scale  ''rendu,"  that 
also  is  to  be  forestalled.  As  a  definite  rule,  in  all 
drawings  at  or  under  a  scale  of  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
to  the  foot,  indicated  stone  balustres  should  touch 
each  other  (Fig.  64) ;  rendered  and  seen  at  a  distance, 


"  Physiologischen  Optik,"  p.  326. 


OPTICAL.    EFFECTS.  145 

they  seem  to  be  properly  separated.  The  easiest 
manner  of  indication  is  to  draw  the  holes  instead  of 
the  balustres  themselves.  Indeed,  similar  tricks  of 
indication  may  be  invented  for 
nearly  all  objects  by  simply 
drawing  the  masses  that  show 
most  in  the  model,  without  refer- 
ence to  their  meaning.  ^' 

Narrow  white  bars  in  a  rendered  window  must  also 
be  made  wider  than  the  scale  would  suggest.  Later 
on,  in  studying  indication  of  plan,  allusion  will  be 
made  to  the  influence  of  divisions  on  the  apparent 
size  of  dimensions.  Suffice,  for  the  moment,  to  say 
that  the  reducing  of  certain  spaces  and  the  increas- 
ing of  others  by  the  introduction  of  judicious  or  inju- 
dicious mosaic  may  make  or  mar  a  plan.  It  is  the 
abuse  of  this  power  over  the  appearance  of  things 
which  has  called  down  so  many  anathemas  on  the 
heads  of  the  French  architects  of  the  modem 
school. 

With  regard  to  irradiation  caused  by  a  brilliant 
light*  (although  these  phenomena  are  of  less  usual 
interest  to  the  architect),  if  one  holds  a  straight  rjiler 
so  that  the  edge  cuts  across  the  flame  of  a  candle  the 
semblance  of  a  nick  is  apparent  in  the  ruler  at  the 
point  where  is  the  flame.  Thus  bars,  seen  with  the 
sun  directly  behind,  tend  to  disappear,  etc.  An  accen- 
tuation of  a  similar  effect  is  seen  in  the  photograph 
of  a  tree  with  the  sun  shining  through  the  leaves  into 
the  camera. 


*  See  Helmholtz,  "  Physiologischen  Optik,"  p.  322  and  following. 
11 


146 


DECOKATIVE    APPLICATION. 


When  a  triple  division  occurs  and  we  wish  each 
part  to  look  exactly  a  third  of  the  total  width,  the  mid- 
dle space  should  be  very 
slightly  larger  than  the  two 
side  ones  (Fig.  65,  a  and  h). 
In  h  the  centers  would  natural- 
ly be  rigorously  on  the  same 
horizontal  line.  That  the  key- 
stone of  the  central  arch  is 
slightly  reduced  in  height 
thereby  is  not  noticeable. 
Augmenting  the  central  space 
of  three  is  necessary,  because 
we  are  so  accustomed  to  see- 
ing a  definitely  dominating 
motive  on  the  axis  that  when 
absolute  equality  exists  the 
middle  division  looks  under- 
sized. 

Another  somewhat  similar 
comparison  of  spaces  exists  in 
the  desire  to  see  the  mat  below 
a  picture  slightly  wider  than 
those  on  the  other  three  sides 
(Fig.  QQ,  A).  Perspective 
may  enter  as  an  abetting  fac- 
tor. It  certainly  does  in  the 
exaggerated  stilting,  neces- 
sary to  all  bases  and  plinths, 
which  are  over  projections 
and  above  the  level  of  the  eye.  fig.  66. 


OPTICAL    EFFECTS.  147 

In  the  excessive  inclination  which  must  be 
given  to  roofs  and  domes  we  see  the  in- 
fluence of  perspective.  Of  course,  a  practical 
reason  for  never  making  the  top  of  a  dome 
too  flat  is  that  rain  and  snow  would  otherwise 
accumulate  there. 

Examples  exist  (that  of  the  staircase  of  the  Vati- 
can)* with  an  accentuation  of  perspective  attempted 
in  the  progressive  shortening  and  drawing  together 
of  a  vista  of  columns.  This  is  not  very  advisable; 
it  resembles  too  much  the  theatrical  effects,  well 
enough  for  stage  scenery,  but  decidedly  out  of  place 
and  character  in  more  serious  decoration.  As  to  the 
treatment  of  scenery  itself,  we  may  leave  the  discus- 
sion in  the  hands  of  the  scene  painter,  merely  noting 
that  if  the  observer  is  displaced  from  the  point  of 
sight,  not  only  does  the  decoration  seem  distorted,  but 
an  accurate  judging  of  the  real  relation  of  lines  and 
forms  becomes  impossible.  In  parallel  perspectives 
this  is  easily  attested.  Here,  although  the  lines  are 
necessarily  parallel,  the  expectation  of  the  sensation 
which  vanishing  parallels  in  nature  would  give,  i.  e., 
the  sensation  given  in  the  drawing  by  convergents 
makes  them  seem  to  be  divergent.  In  picturings  of 
circular  forms,  if  arcs  of  circles  are  mistakenly  sub- 
stituted for  the  ellipses  of  projection,  the  arcs  do  not 
look  like  portions  of  circles. 

An  important  chapter  in  the  psychological  study 
of  optical  illusions  is  that  treating  perspective  illu- 

*  See  Letarouilly,  "  Le  Vatican,"  Librairies  Imprimeries  R^unies, 
Paris. 


148  DECORATIVE    APPLICATION. 

sions  offered  by  simple  geometrical  diagrams.  These 
are  of  lesser  importance  to  the  decorator,  as  his  de- 
signs are  usually  definite  as  representations.  Where 
the  design  is  purely  geometrical,  perspective  illusions 
are  more  or  less  out  of  keeping.  Fig.  66,  B,  shows  a 
faulty  yet  much  used  arrangement,  ordinarily  adopted 
for  floor  tiling.  The  impression  of  treading  on  the 
sharp  points  of  projecting  cubes  is  not  agreeable. 

If  an  arrangement,  having  in  its  composition  spots 
or  elements  prominent  enough  to  form  a  design  of 
their  own,  be  seen  from  one  side  so  that  the  spots  fall 
into  lines  other  than  those  on  which  the  original  ar- 
rangement was  formed,  the  general  effect  will  be 
completely  changed.  This  is  noticeable  in  wall 
papers  with  small  bunches  of  flowers  arranged  in  a 
chequered  pattern. 

While  speaking  of  the  aspect  of  things  we  must 
refer  (page  93)  to  the  mistake  of  placing  a  sym- 
metrical motive,  such  as  a  dome,  over  a  triangular  or 
pentangular  plan.  The  designer  ought  to  keep  in 
mind  that  a  monument,  or  other  similar  composition 
which  silhouettes,  if  planned  on  a  square,  should  be 
studied  in  diagonal,  as  well  as  in  front  elevation. 
Naturally,  in  all  designs  where  relief  exists,  the  per- 
spective view,  if  not  actually  drawn  out,  should  be 
continually  kept  in  mind.  Although  a  perspective 
drawing  may  be  an  aid,  reliable  help  is  only  obtain- 
able from  a  good  model,  or  that  still  more  expensive 
commodity,  experience. 

In  arrangements  of  value  and  color  much  uncer- 
tainty exists  for  the  designer,  because  of  the  differ- 


OPTICAL    EFFECTS.  149 

ence  in  appearance  of  an  element  isolated,  or  con- 
trasted with  other  elements.  Thus  the  alteration  of 
one  part  of  a  drawing  might  necessitate  a  complete 
change  in  all  parts.  This  may  be  turned  to  account 
in  many  ways,  as  the  following  illustration  will  show. 
A  well-known  painter  had  finished  a  portrait,  pro- 
nounced by  relatives  of  the  sitter  (unusual  in  such 
cases)  to  be  as  good  in  likeness  as  it  was  excellent  in 
the  possession  of  those  artistic  qualities  which  always 
pervaded  the  works  of  the  skilled  technician.  The 
inevitable  *'but"  however  had  to  be  brought  in;  the 
coloring  was  '  *  a  little  too  florid, ' '  they  thought.  The 
artist,  wishing  to  gratify  them,  asked  for  a  day's 
more  work  on  the  portrait ;  the  result  was  pronounced 
perfect.  The  good  critics  imagined  that  the  head  had 
been  largely  repainted:  the  artist  knew  he  had  but 
changed  the  background  from  green  to  a  brown  of  the 
same  value. 

Contrasts  of  complementary  colors  accentuate  each 
other,  as  do  those  of  value,  light  and  dark.  Also, 
when  two  fields  of  color,  complementary  to  each  other, 
come  together,  each  may  be  slightly  altered  (made 
whiter)  along  the  edge  by  the  continual  movement  of 
the  eye,  which  movement  causes  the  impression  made 
by  one  color  on  the  retina,  to  cover  the  edge  of  the 
neighboring  field.* 

The  complementary  colors  as  given  by  Helmholtz 

are:t 

red  and  greenish  blue, 

orange  and  pure  blue, 

*  Helmholtz,  "  Physiologischen  Optik,"  p.  388  and  following, 
t  Ibid.,  p.  277. 


150  DECOKATIVE    APPLICATION. 

yellow  and  indigo  blue, 
greenish  yellow  and  violet. 

Pure  green  has  no  direct  complement.  In  mixing 
colored  lights,  however,  green,  violet  and  red  form 
the  three  primary  colors;  in  painting,  red,  yellow 
and  blue  are  usually  accepted  as  primaries. 

Drawings  and  pictures  of  all  sorts  have  to  be  made 
for  the  light  in  which  and  for  the  distance  from  which 
they  are  to  be  judged.  This  is  one  of  the  difficulties 
attending  the  making  of  both  out-of-door  sketches 
and  studio  work.  In  general,  drawings  for  an  exhibi- 
tion should  be  particularly  brilliant.  To  state  suc- 
cinctly what  changes  occur :  the  greater  the  light  by 
which  a  drawing  or  painting  is  to  be  seen  the  longer 
must  be  the  scales,  both  of  value  and  color.  That  is 
to  say,  the  greater  the  illumination,  the  darker  should 
be  the  darkest  value,  and  the  lighter  the  lightest. 
With  colors,  there  must  be  greater  difference  between 
those  complementary  to  each  other— less  grayness  of 
tone. 

Despite  the  advisability  of  using  a  long  scale,  small 
black  or  white  spots  are  rendered  more  apparent  and 
disagreeable  by  increased  lighting.  The  same  cause 
makes  work  in  a  short  key  appear  better  in  inade- 
quate lighting  than  in  an  exhibition.  While  strong 
light  seems  to  shorten  the  scales  of  value  and  color, 
possibly  to  accentuate  the  effect  by  increasing  actual 
contrasts  of  light  and  shade  in  frames  and  other  ob- 
jects in  the  room,  it  also  makes  more  definite,  leaves 
less  to  the  imagination,  inaccurate  and  harsh  con- 


OPTICAL,    EFFECTS.  151 

trasts.  Of  course,  the  longer  the  scale  of  value  or 
color  the  better  will  the  work  ** carry"  to  a  distance. 

Drawings  in  a  uniformly  high  key  can  support 
strong  light  better  than  those  in  a  uniformly  low  one ; 
but  either  will  be  injured  by  the  neighborhood  of 
another  drawing,  conceived  in  a  larger  scale.  Excep- 
tion may  be  made  for  paintings  which  portray  a  defi- 
nite effect.  A  landscape  'twixt  darkness  and  dawn  in 
a  low  key  like  that  of  M.  Pointelin's  in  the  Luxem- 
bourg gallery,  or  a  sunlight  study  like  some  of  the 
impressionist  paintings,  high  in  key,  gives  the  ex- 
pected contrast  with  other  work. 

Even  in  such  paintings  as  those  of  Mr.  Whistler's 
or  M.  Eugene  Carriere's,  where  the  artist  implies  a 
particular  effect,  the  picture  is  less  likely  to  suffer 
after  hanging.  But  when  no  peculiarity  in  the  light- 
ing of  the  model  is  shown  (this  is  definitely  the  case 
in  architectural  rendering)  a  long  scale  should  be 
adopted. 

If  a  particular  color  exists  in  superabundance  in 
the  light  by  which  a  painting  is  seen,  that  color,  with 
its  complement,  suffers  in  the  painting.  Inversely,  a 
drawing  made  by  candle-light  and  exhibited  by  day 
has  almost  invariably  too  much  yellow,  while  the 
violets  are  crude.  In  the  same  way  a  drawing  made 
by  the  rays  of  the  setting  sun  is  likely  to  have  faults 
in  the  red  and  green  notes ;  a  study  by  moonlight,  to 
look  green  in  the  daytime. 

This  is  probably  because  the  color,  like  that  of  the 
light,  seems  white  to  the  painter  and  he  must  use  a 
great  deal  of  it  in  order  to  make  an  impression  on  his 


152  DECOEATIVE    APPLICATION. 

eye;  the  complement  of  this  color,  having  a  super- 
abundance of  colored  rays  to  absorb,  is  made  crude. 
As  a  result,  the  color  which  bears  the  same  name  as 
that  of  the  light  is  likely,  exhibited  in  daylight,  to  be 
too  dark  in  value. 

A  further  evidence  of  this  is  the  power  which  sun- 
light has  over  colors.  The  most  varied  and  barbaric 
conglomerations  of  color  appear  harmonious  with 
sunshine  on  them.  From  this  the  architect  and 
decorator  may  derive  two  important  lessons:  First, 
for  exterior  decoration  only  use  great  contrasts  of 
color  in  southern  countries,  where  strong  sunlight 
prevails.  Exterior  work  in  all  northern  countries 
should  be  more  or  less  uniform  in  tonality.  The 
colors  which  predominate  in  the  landscape  under  our 
colder  climates  accentuate  the  need  of  observing  this 
rule.  Second,  although  a  cartoon  for  an  interior 
decoration  with  strongly  contrasting  colors  may  seem 
attractive  at  a  small  scale,  the  reduced  lighting  which 
it  is  likely  to  receive  when  executed  should  induce  the 
artist  to  shorten  his  color  and  value  scales.  He  should 
keep  the  key  high,  rather  than  low,  for  large  masses 
of  dark  color  lessen  the  decorative  effect  and  absorb 
the  light  of  the  room  or  hall.  Another  element, 
accentuating  the  need  of  keeping  the  colors  together, 
is  that  the  larger  the  fields  of  color,  the  less  likely  they 
are  to  fuse  together  in  the  way  small  neighboring 
spots  do. 

Before  leaving  the  discussion  of  optical  effects,  a 
word  must  be  said  in  regard  to  some  few  dispositions 
of  line  to  be  avoided  for  aesthetic  reasons. 


OPTICAl,    EFFECTS.  153 

Given  an  axis,  a  series  of  parallel  obliques,  or  a 
running  design  composed  upon  a  similar  basis,  should 
not  continue  around  an  interior,  or  as  a  frieze  or 
girdle  about  an  exterior,  without  the  direction  of  the 
obliques  being  reversed  at  the  axis.  In  any  case,  it 
is  usually  disagreeable  to  see  a  running  band  of  ob- 
liques which  has  no  beginning  or  end ;  the  eye  is  dis- 
tressed by  the  temptation  to  follow  the  design  without 
stopping  point.  Special  arrangements  ought  to  be 
studied  for  these  beginnings  and  endings. 

Long  inclined  lines,  such  as  those  of  the  classic 
pediments  and  Renaissance  gables,  should  also  have 
a  definite  starting  point.  This  the  ancient  and  Ren- 
aissance artists  realized  when  they  terminated  these 
lines  with  an  antefix  or  fineal.  We  may  find  the  chief 
necessity  for  such  a  vertical  in  the  fact  that,  unsup- 
plemented,  the  angle  of  the  silhouette  would  be  obtuse 
and  weak.  In  some  cases  prominent  horizontals,  a 
gargoyle  or  projecting  cornice  may  supplant  the 
vertical. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Style.* 

Apropos  of  the  application  of  the  technical  laws  of 
composition  to  decoration,  it  may  be  well  to  speak  of 
the  influence  exerted  over  that  application  by  styles 
of  earlier  ages.  Such  remarks  must,  necessarily,  be 
a  matter  of  opinion.  I  should  be  sorry  to  have  the 
following  regarded  as  more  than  that. 

As  may  be  gathered  from  preceding  pages  (see 
''Unity  of  Style,"  page  48),  it  seems  to  me  that  any 
general  application  of  an  earlier  style,  the  outcome 
of  a  civilization  different  from  ours,  is  a  mistake  both 
of  logic  and  taste.  Such  can  only  be  acceptable  when 
the  special  example  is  one  in  which  our  present  ideas 
have  retained  the  coloring  of  an  earlier  epoch.  For 
a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  Gothic  might  still  be  an 
appropriate  expression;  yet  in  some  other  modern 
uses,  absurd.  As  a  result  of  modern  civilization's 
markedly  different  expressions  (in  Germany,  France, 
England  and  America),  I  believe  that  the  architecture 
of  each  country  should  present  national  characteris- 
tics. However,  for  one  who  has  lived— not  travelled, 
but  lived— in  these  different  countries,  there  disap- 

*  An  excellent  review  of  the  styles  of  the  Christian  era  is  to  be 
found  in  M.  Henry  Havard's  "  Les  Styles,"  Paris,  Librairie  Charles 
Delgrave.  Indeed  the  whole  series  "  Les  Arts  de  Tameublement " 
of  which  this  volume  forms  a  part  will  be  of  interest  to  the  art 
student. 

154 


STYLE.  155 

pears  the  great  dissimilarity  seemingly  existent  to  the 
casual  traveller. 

One  may  fairly  say  that  the  Frenchman,  German 
and  American  of  the  year  1900  more  nearly  resemble 
each  other  in  their  modem  needs  than  the  up-to-date 
American  and  his  forefather,  the  old  Colonialist  of 
a  hundred  years  ago.  Moreover,  the  inter-race  dif- 
ferences, still  strongly  noticeable  in  some  matters, 
become  less  and  less  decided  as  facility  of  intercourse 
increases.  It  may  be,  in  a  few  hundred  years,  the 
artistic  expression  in  one  part  of  the  civilized  world 
will  be  the  counterpart  of  that  in  another. 

Be  this  as  it  may,  if  the  artist  sincerely  expresses 
what  he  feels,  makes  no  vain  attempt  to  generate  a 
national  style,  but  simply  works  for  the  best  advan- 
tage of  the  requirements  of  his  country  and  genera- 
tion, the  progress  of  art  will  take  care  of  itself. 

Adopting  an  earlier  style,  we  ought  fully  to  realize 
the  aims  of  its  creators.  We  should,  then,  save  our- 
selves from  falling  into  the  kind  of  fault  often  com- 
mitted now-a-days  by  illiterate  architects,  who  use 
Gothic  without  conceiving,  in  the  vaguest  way,  what 
wonderful  constructional  principles  underlie  that 
most  logical  period  of  the  world's  architectural 
history. 

If  we  work  in  a  historical  style  our  adaptation 
should  be  pure  and  scholarly;  but  the  expression  of 
style  must  not  detract  from  the  character  of  the  build- 
ing. The  visitor,  shown  the  sights  of  a  town,  should 
never  be  tempted  to  exclaim:  ''What  an  excellent 
example  of  French  Renaissance  I ' '  instead  of,  * '  What 
a  successful  design  for  a  library  1" 


156  DECOKATIVE    APPLICATION. 

All  arcMtectural  styles  of  civilized  countries,  from 
the  classic  to  the  modem,  seem  to  me  to  have  a  possible 
relation  with  some  phase  of  our  present  existence. 
Those  of  the  middle  ages,  of  a  time  when  the  religious 
sentiment  was  fully  developed,  are  susceptible  of  be- 
ing applied  to  similar  edifices  of  the  present  day; 
those  of  the  early  Eenaissance  may  well  be  adapted  to 
modern  domestic  work,  while  the  later  French  Renais- 
sance of  the  Louis'  is  allied,  in  feeling,  to  much  of 
what  one  finds  in  the  present  expression  of  society. 
But  all  of  these  applications  are  to  be  modified  by  the 
personality  (naturally  a  present-day  personality)  of 
the  architect. 

In  the  first  part  of  this  volume  it  was  suggested 
that  the  style  which  may  become  characteristic  of  the 
twentieth  century  will  draw  its  individuality  from  a 
free  and  proper  use  of  iron.  Certainly,  present 
necessity  for  strength  of  construction,  coupled  with 
reduced  points  of  support,  is  best  met  by  an  unre- 
served adoption  of  steel.  May  we  not,  while  acknowl- 
edging a  constructional  principle,  be  as  happy  as  were 
the  Gothic  architects  of  former  centuries?  And  if 
we  imagine  a  frank  showing  of  the  framework  to  be 
ugly  is  it  not  because  we  have  accustomed  ourselves 
to  another  flavor  in  the  preparation  of  our  architec- 
tural dishes?  Are  we  not  somewhat  like  the  young 
child  who,  having  tasted  nothing  but  milk,  turns 
away  from  the  meat  which  will  give  to  it  the  strength 
of  manhood? 

Perhaps  the  greatest  benefit  which  we  may  derive 
from  preceding  styles  lies  not  so  much  in  an  applica- 


STYLE.  157 

tion  to  modern  decoration  as  in  the  refinement  whicli 
their  careful  study  is  sure  to  impart  (see  again  in 
Part  I.,  page  38).  By  taking  up  first  one  style  and 
working  therein  for  some  time,  only  leaving  it  for 
another  when  the  finer  qualities  of  the  epoch  have 
been  appreciated  and  assimilated,  the  student  be- 
comes impressed  with  the  more  subtle  traits  of  the 
masters  of  the  past  age;  later,  although  abandoning 
forms  and  materials  for  which  he  has  no  use,  he  will 
retain  the  marks  of  a  gentle  breeding  in  art  which 
communion  with  the  great  geniuses  can  not  fail  to 
produce. 


PART  IV. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Practical,  Suggestions  in  Design  Applied  to 
Decorative  Work. 

We  recall  that  a  first  general  law  of  all  designs  to 
be  executed  in  a  particular  material  is  that  these  be  in 
harmony  with  the  material. 

An  architect  has,  usually,  two  or  three  materials  to 
cope  with,  in  even  the  simplest  elevation.  He  should 
be  careful  that  the  line  carried  through  by  modern 
mouldings,  although  offering  as  broad  a  band  of 
decoration  as  the  stone,  is,  in  the  finer  material,  inter- 
preted by  a  more  delicate  profile.  This  principle  of 
decoration  is  so  often  ignored  that  too  much  can 
hardly  be  said  in  its  behalf.  When  the  composition 
is  to  occupy  a  particular  place  or  position,  the  motives 
should  be  designed  with  a  due  regard  to  their  placing 
(see  page  34). 

Keeping  these  laws  in  mind,  we  shall  pass  in  review 
different  materials  in  which  decorative  work  is  usu- 
ally executed.  This  can  only  be  done  superficially, 
for  each  separate  art  would  require  a  volume  or  sev- 
eral volumes  to  itself.  It  will,  nevertheless,  be  pos- 
sible to  cite  the  characteristics  inherent  in  each 
material,  and  this  should  be  quite  enough  for  our 
present  need. 

158 


DESIGN   IN   DECORATIVE   WORK.  159 

We  should  first  take  up  those  materials  which  have 
prominent  constructional  qualities. 

Stone,  it  is  well  known,  resists  best  in  compression. 
For  this  reason  the  stone  arch  is  a  better  element  of 
construction  than  the  lintel.  The  design,  to  be  carried 
out  in  stone,  should  not  present  elements  which  have 
to  resist  a  trenchant  or  bending  moment. 

Moreover,  stone  is  a  material  which  only  resists 
when  the  section  has  a  certain  dimension,  and  fine  or 
delicate  fillets  and  shafts  should  be  avoided.  Such 
absurd  tracery  as  that  found  in  Henry  VII.  chapel 
in  Westminster  Abbey,  and  the  decadent  Gothic  of 
Saint  Maclou,  at  Eouen,  are  not  examples  to  be  imi- 
tated. 

But  it  is  not  sufficient,  in  preoccupation  about  the 
material  at  hand,  merely  to  assure  ourselves  that 
designs  are  stony  in  character.  There  are  too  great 
differences  between  the  harder  and  rougher  granites 
and  the  fine  grained  marbles  to  allow  of  such  a  gross 
grouping.  It  is  almost  as  inappropriate  to  carve  a 
detailed  and  delicately  chased  Corinthian  capital  out 
of  brutal  granite  as  to  copy  the  choir  stalls  of  Amiens 
cathedral  in  marble.  If  a  stronger  and  rougher  stone 
is  needed,  so  also  is  a  more  male  design. 

The  fibrous  composition  of  wood  renders  it  emi- 
nently able  to  resist  tension  and,  in  somewhat  less 
degree,  compression,  when  these  occur  in  line  with 
the  fibers;  also  compression  and  a  trenchant  moment, 
or  the  tendency  to  bend,  when  they  are  applied  in  a 
direction  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  the  fibers. 

The  two  most  usual  misuses  of  wood  are  giving  it 


160  PEACTICAL.    SUGGESTIONS    IN    DESIGN. 

a  form  which  is  in  contradiction  to  its  fibrous  com- 
position and  cutting  out  of  it  mouldings  properly 
belonging  to  stone.  Inasmuch  as  the  fibers  of  a  piece 
of  wood  are  naturally  straight,  we  may  accept  as  a 
law  that  all  wood  arches  (except  those  composed  of 
several  thicknesses  of  plank,  "Fig.  67,  a,  in  which  case 
the  fibers  follow  the  direction  of  the  curve)  are  un- 
natural and  illogical  (Fig.  67,  b).    Even  such  a  com- 


Fig.  G7. 

posed  arch  as  that  of  c  (Fig.  67)  is  to  be  avoided,  if 
possible.  The  arch  does  not  belong  to  wood;  and, 
although  the  charm  of  the  old  English  timber  work 
is  not  to  be  denied,  we  can  hardly  fail  to  recognize 
how  much  more  attractive  are  the  examples  where  no 
irrational  silhouettes  are  introduced.  Even  in  small 
compositions  for  furniture-carving,  etc.,  if  any  re- 
sistance is  desired  or  implied,  excessive  curves  should 
be  set  aside.  In  cabinet  work,  as  in  carpentering,  the 
true  artist  is  never  ashamed  of  a  good  joint.  More- 
over, the  frank  accentuation  of  the  constructive  ele- 
ments of  any  design  is  always  reassuring,  giving  the 
observer  a  feeling  of  security. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  wood  shrinks  in  the  direction 
perpendicular  to  that  of  the  fibers,  all  joints  in  panel 


DESIGN   IN   DECORATIVE   WORK.  161 

work,  etc.,  should  be  covered  by  mouldings.  It  is  also 
best  to  avoid  broad  panels,  because  they  not  only  make 
the  shrinkage  at  each  joint  greater,  but  are  themselves 
more  likely  to  crack.  We  should  not  depend  on  glue 
to  hold  a  joint— it  is  a  makeshift  and  invariably 
cracks  out  in  the  end. 

In  wood  carving,  never  stoop  to  the  patchwork,  so 
often  affected  by  manufacturers,  where,  for  the  sake 
of  cheapness,  all  parts  of  the  design  having  relief 
are  cut  out  separately  and  glued  to  the  background. 
At  the  joining  of  these  pieces  with  the  ground,  a  sharp 
angle  necessarily  shows,  preventing  any  of  the  subtle 
effects  where  one  plane  melts  into  another,  the  chief 
charm  of  a  delicate  design.  Moreover,  the  break 
between  the  grains  of  the  pieces  of  wood  is  always 
disturbing. 

With  wood,  as  with  stone,  we  must  adapt  our  de- 
signs to  the  especial  species  in  hand.  The  finer  carv- 
ing, proper  for  walnut,  rosewood,  mahogany,  ebony, 
etc.,  should  take  on  a  more  vigorous  cast  when  in- 
tended for  oak;  the  softer  woods  should  only  be  cut 
into  broad  silhouettes  whose  appearance  will  not  be 
materially  altered  by  blunting  of  the  edges. 

Above  all,  over-charged  and  minute  work  resem- 
bling that  of  ivory  ought  not  to  be  indulged  in. 
Although  a  delicate  material,  wood  chips  easily ;  even 
though  it  be  sufficiently  cared  for  to  escape  mishaps, 
the  suggestion  that  projections  may  be  fragile  is 
enough  to  condemn  the  design. 

Of  late  years  much  charming  decoration  in  burnt 
wood  has  been  executed;  but  usually  for  small  objects 

12 


162  PRACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    DESIGN. 

only.  The  ricli  brown  effects  of  burning  might  be 
used  in  a  broader  way  in  general  interior  work. 

Iron  is  so  various  in  its  different  guises  that  we 
shall  study  each  one  of  them  separately. 

From  a  constructive  point  of  view,  steel  and  iron 
are  the  most  serviceable  materials  known.  They  re- 
sist in  the  three  directions  and  necessitate  only  a  mini- 
mum section.  When  in  an  exposed  position,  they 
must  always  be  protected  by  paint  or  galvanizing,  etc., 
and  if  a  fire-proof  construction  is  desired,  by  terra- 
cotta or  a  similar  insulator. 

Cast-iron  is  often  moulded  in  decorative  design. 
The  ease  with  which  it  is  shaped  tempts  one  to  imitate 
the  forms  appertaining  to  other  materials.  The  most 
usual  transgressions  come  from  the  casting  of  iron 
capitals  which  have  the  large  proportions  and,  at  the 
same  time,  the  fineness  of  detail  of  stone.  For  the 
first,  the  appearance  of  unnecessary  waste  of  material 
is  distressing.  For  the  second,  the  paint  which  must 
cover  iron  work,  together  with  the  irregularities  which 
result  from  the  manner  in  which  casting  of  this  sort 
is  done,  render  attempted  delicate  detail  ungainly.  A 
more  blocked-out  design,  of  lesser  proportions,  should 
be  substituted  for  the  everlasting  distorted  Corinthian 
capital  and  thick  column. 

Wrought  and  hammered  iron  open  up  to  us  a  quite 
different  field.  Here  the  larger  bars  of  iron,  worked 
in  the  forge  and  supplemented  by  finer  bars,  with 
sheet  iron  hammered  into  leaves,  etc.,  may  make  a 
composition  of  the  greatest  interest  and  variety.  The 
old  wrought  iron  work  of  the  Florentines  is  full  of  a 


DESIGN   IN   DECORATIVE   WORK.  163 

character  and  charm  whicli  cannot  be  outrivalled  by 
the  even  more  noted  epochs  of  Louis  XIV.,  XV.  and 
XVT.  In  its  simplicity  it  is  eminently  fitted  to  serve 
us  as  a  means  of  inspiration  for  domestic  composi- 
tions. Of  the  French  styles  worthy  examples  are  the 
Grilles  at  Nancy,  some  of  the  Versailles  work,  the 
Louis  XIV.  interior  wrought  iron  or  steel  doors  of  the 
Galerie  d'ApoUon  of  the  Louvre,  and  the  charming 
designs  of  Blondel,  Briseux  and  other  Louis  XV.  and 
Louis  XVI.  artists. 

Combinations  of  wrought  iron,  or  even  better,  of 
polished  steel  and  brass,  may  be  used  with  great 
effect.  The  stronger  constructive  elements  should  be 
of  steel;  the  lighter  decorations  of  brass. 

It  may  be  well  to  note  here  that  combinations  of 
metal,  such  as  iron  and  zink  or  copper,  should  not  be 
used  in  such  a  manner  that  an  electric  current  might 
be  established  between  them.  Otherwise  a  corroding 
of  the  metals  ensues  and  speedy  destruction  is  the 
result. 

Bronze  is  ordinarily  only  used  for  decorative  pur- 
poses, and  the  finer  and  more  careful  casting,  either 
in  sand  or  by  the  wax  process  allows  of  greater 
delicacy  than  that  of  iron.  Hence,  fine  members  of 
slight  section  are  characteristic  of  bronze  design. 
The  ease  with  which  bronze  may  be  worked  also  per- 
mits of  delicate  chasing.  This  method  of  execution 
at  times  supplements  casting.  Excessive  retouching 
is,  however,  inadvisable.  The  original  model  is 
necessarily  made  without  reference  to  such  changes, 
and  the  tool  lines  seem  sharp  and  out  of  place. 


164  PEACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    DESIGN. 

Bronze  is  nearly  always  finished  with  a  patine, 
which  should  be  rubbed  off  from  the  more  salient 
points.  This  allows  the  metal  underneath  to  show 
through  and  contrast  with  the  outer  tone.  We  see 
here  the  reason  why  copper,  often  substituted  in 
America  for  the  more  expensive  alloy,  is  so  inferior 
to  it. 

It  would  be  too  long  to  cite  the  different  styles 
where  cTioice  examples  of  bronze  work  are  to  be  found. 
From  the  early  days  of  Greece  to  our  modern  time, 
in  Japan,  indeed  through  all  the  East,  as  well  as  in 
Europe,  we  find  beautiful  evidences  of  the  artist's 
skill  in  designing  for  this  wonderfully  adaptable 
material. 

Tin  and  pewter  show  some  of  the  characteristics 
which  bronze  presents.  On  account  of  their  softness 
it  is  better  not  to  chase  them.  Combinations  of  pew- 
ter and  faience  or  of  pewter  and  glass  are  most  happy. 

Copper,  brass  and  lead  may  be  either  hammered  or 
cast.  For  the  two  former  metals  the  design  com- 
posed for  hammered  work  should  take  account  of  the 
inconveniences  which  might  arise  from  sharp  project- 
ing edges.  It  should,  therefore,  provide  a  properly 
curved  moulding  for  the  border.  In  the  case  of  lead 
the  forms  must  not  be  too  contorted,  as  the  heaviness 
of  the  material  would  cause  it  to  sag  and  lose  its  shape. 

Zink  is  usually  stamped,  and  so  can  only  be  worked 
in  thin  sheets. 

From  the  consideration  of  elements  used  directly  in 
construction  we  pass  naturally  to  composed  materials. 
Plaster  and  stucco  have,  for  centuries,  been  well- 


DESIGN    IN   DECORATIVE   WORK.  165 

known  mediums.  In  their  present  adoption  we  have 
only  to  bear  in  mind  that  imitation  of  stone  is  to  be 
avoided.  False  joints,  heavy  mouldings,  stony  rusti- 
cations, etc.,  must  be  set  aside.  As  a  compensation, 
however,  great  freedom  in  the  use  of  projections,  in 
fact,  all  the  latitude  in  which  the  modeller  glories  are 
at  the  disposition  of  the  designer.  Stucco  is  usually 
painted  or  gilded,  and  is  especially  appropriate  for 
interiors. 

The  stucco  work  of  Pompeii,  and  still  more  that  of 
the  Arabs  and  Moors,  offers  most  characteristic  ex- 
amples of  pressed  designs.  We  may  find  a  more 
modern  inspiration  in  later  Italian  and  French  decor- 
ations. Although  often  executed  with  a  ground  work 
of  wood  carving,  these  still  present  elements  which 
are  legitimately  to  be  translated  in  pure  stucco.  In 
Italian  Renaissance  we  should  study  the  Palazzo 
Spada  and  similar  palaces  of  Rome,  the  villas,  the 
Palazzo  Pitti,  and  the  ceilings  of  the  ducal  palace  in 
Venice;  in  the  French  Renaissance,  the  Gallerie  de 
Francois  I.  at  Fontainebleau,  the  Louvre,  Versailles, 
the  Hotel  Soubise,  and  other  more  restrained  Louis 
XV.  hotels ;  in  our  own  modern  time  the  Paris  Opera 
House,  and  the  ceiling  of  the  Cour  de  Cassassion  in 
Paris.  The  last  named  works,  although,  perhaps, 
overcharged  with  decoration,  are  yet  replete  with 
ideas  for  the  designer. 

As  may  be  seen  by  reviewing  the  foregoing  ex- 
amples, overcrowding  of  design  is  a  besetting  sin  into 
which  the  brilliant  artist  is  likely  to  fall.  A  material 
which  offers  no  restrictions  may  easily  be  vulgarized 


166  PEACTICAl.    SUGGESTIONS    IN    DESIGN. 

on  account  of  lack  of  restraint  in  the  fashioning. 
Papier-mache  must  be  considered  in  somewhat  the 
same  category  as  stucco.  It  is  of  the  greatest  use, 
provided  it  makes  no  pretences. 

Imitation  stone  is  always  to  be  regretted.  Kuskin, 
whom  we  have  so  often  quoted  in  the  earlier  chapters 
of  this  volume,  has  put  forth  too  strong  a  plea  for 
truth  in  architecture,  for  truth  in  art,  to  make  possible 
any  addition  to  his  glowing  words. 

It  may  here  be  allowable  to  speak  of  our  American 
half -timber  work  in  its  use  in  connection  with  plaster 
and  brick.  Usually,  because  of  a  question  of  expense, 
or  because  of  ill-seasoned  wood,  boards  are  merely 
nailed  on  the  outside  of  a  plaster  wall  in  imitation  of 
the  older  construction.  In  a  talk  with  one  of  our  well- 
known  American  architects,  this  makeshift  was  cham- 
pioned on  the  ground  that  it  is  only  a  decoration,  and 
intended  to  deceive  no  one.  It  seemed  to  me,  how- 
ever, that  my  friend  was  in  reality  trying  to  deceive 
himself.  I  am,  as  yet,  unconvinced  that  most  people 
do  not  see  in  the  modem  imitation,  first,  from  a  dis- 
tance, an  announcement  of  apparent  construction,  and 
at  last,  on  nearer  investigation,  a  useless  sham  in  the 
futile  expenditure  of  pennies  for  boards  nailed  zig- 
zag to  a  house. 

We  have  already  had  occasion  to  speak  of  terra- 
cotta and  of  the  uses  to  which  it  may  be  put.  To 
sum  up  the  subject:  as  long  as  pressed  brick,  tiles, 
and  similar  productions  do  not  seek  to  imitate  stone 
they  may  express  the  highest  type  of  art.  The  de- 
signer should  remember,  however,  that  in  moulding 


DESIGN    IN   DECORATIVE   WORK.  167 

and  baking,  sharp  definitions  of  plane  may  become 
softened. 

Again  Greece,  Eome,  the  East,  Italy,  France,  with 
the  northern  countries,  Flanders,  the  Netherlands, 
etc.,  offer  us  different  and  most  useful  suggestions. 
Very  interesting  effects  may  be  obtained  by  the  slight 
varying  of  the  bond  or  design,  which  bricks  of  un- 
equal values  accentuate  in  half -timber  work.  A  study 
of  similar  work  in  Germany  and  England  will  repay 
the  artist  who  intends  to  devote  himself  to  domestic 
architecture. 

The  architect  may  also  borrow  most  successfully 
from  the  resources  which  enamelled  terra-cotta, 
faience  and  porcelain  so  generously  place  before  him. 
Be  the  subjects  of  decoration  inspired  from  the  won- 
derful creations  of  Lucca  della  Robbia  and  his  fol- 
lowers, and  set  directly  in  stone,  or  be  they  Delft 
plaques  used  in  combination  with  dark  oak,  the  effect 
cannot  fail  to  charm. 

In  general,  the  simpler  the  coloring,  the  better. 
Perhaps  the  safest  sources  of  inspiration  for  purely 
decorative  work  (apart  from  the  monochromes  of 
Delft  blues  and  browns)  are  those  offered  by  Oriental 
designs,  especially  those  of  the  Persians  and  Arabians. 
The  artist  must  always  keep  in  mind  the  distance 
from  which  his  composition  is  to  be  seen.  Porcelain 
medallions,  and  even  plates,  may  be  used  with  great 
decorative  effect.  Here  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  are 
preeminent.  Eookwood  and  Grueby  faiences  of  our 
own  modern  times  might  be  more  used  by  architects. 


168  PEACTICAl.    SUGGESTIONS    IN    DESIGN. 

The  mat  tones  of  the  latter  are  well  adapted  to  dark 
wood. 

Too  great  fineness  is  to  be  avoided  in  mosaic.  Inas- 
much as  the  small  blocks  of  stone  must  always  cause 
irregularities  in  the  drawing,  the  latter  should  be 
frankly  conventional.  Perspective,  especially  for 
floorings,  must  be  avoided.  The  common  arrange- 
ments (noted  in  Optical  Effects)  of  tiles  that  seem  to 
offer  pointed  blocks  on  which  to  walk  are  evidently 
irrational  and  inartistic.  Since  the  decorative  char- 
acteristics are  to  predominate  in  mosaic,  harmony  and 
richness  of  color  are  the  two  great  qualities  to  be 
sought. 

The  best  examples  may  be  found  in  Pompeian, 
Roman,  Italian  and  in  the  Eastern  work.  St.  Mark's 
in  Venice  is  noted  for  the  warmth  and  almost  barbaric 
glory  of  its  mosaic  decorations.  The  Monreale  mo- 
saics are  also  well  known. 

There  are  some  agreeable  modern  floor  mosaics  in 
the  Paris  Opera  House.  The  ' '  E  scalier  Daru ' '  of  the 
Louvre  has  also  lately  been  decorated  with  brilliant, 
perhaps  not  very  successful,  coloring.  In  America  we 
may  be  proud  of  the  very  attractive  work  in  the  lower 
floor  of  the  Boston  Public  Library,  where  a  quietness 
of  design  and  charming  harmony  of  color  vie  with 
each  other  in  fixing  our  attention.  These  mosaics  are, 
however,  modelled  on  the  old  Roman,  or  Italian  work, 
which  have  not  the  daring  and,  of  course,  not  the 
warmth  of  the  more  brilliant  Byzantine  compositions. 

Cloisonne  is  a  branch  of  art  which  has  some  things 
in  common  with  mosaic.    Here  again  the   design 


DESIGN    IN    DECORATIVE    WORK.  169 

should  be  frankly  conventional ;  indeed,  this  may  be 
said  of  most  enamels.  China  and  Japan  have  fur- 
nished most  beautiful  specimens  of  cloisonne. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  Boulle  incrustation, 
so  applicable  to  furniture  designs.  The  inlaying  of 
one  metal  in  another,  an  earlier  art  much  practised 
in  Spain  and  in  the  Orient,  has  hardly  a  place  here. 
Such  designs,  while  delicate,  must  remain  either  geo- 
metrical or  conventional. 

In  making  designs  for  transparent  glass  work,  cut 
glass  and  even  combinations  of  glass  and  metal,  the 
artist  should  keep  in  mind  that,  not  only  will  the  sur- 
face in  relief,  but  also  the  reverse  of  the  other  side 
be  seen.  Thus  a  plain  portion  may  appear  cut  up  by 
facets  which  the  transparency  of  the  material  reveals. 

A  chapter  of  art,  especially  interesting  to  the  archi- 
tect is  that  relating  to  stained  glass.  To  go  into  an 
historical  sketch  of  such  a  subject  would  be  beyond 
the  scope  of  this  discussion.  We  need  only  quickly 
review  the  past  in  order  to  realize  the  changes  which 
have  taken  place  in  the  craft  and  in  the  designs  for  it. 

Early  windows  were,  of  necessity,  composed  of 
small  pieces  of  glass  held  together  by  leading.  In  all 
early  work  each  color  was  represented  by  a  separate 
piece  of  glass.  Some  modelling,  draperies  and  the 
features  of  a  face,  etc.,  were  painted  in  line  in  a  dark 
brown  pigment  made  of  oxide  of  iron  (iron  rust)  and 
fired  in.  Heavy  painting  was  also  used  to  stop  out 
light  between  the  lead  contour  and  delicate  silhouettes 
of  the  design.  Colored  windows  had  usually  little 
white  glass  in  them,  and  that  attenuated  by  diaper 


170  PRACTICAL,    SUGGESTIONS    IN    DESIGN. 

pattern.  The  colored  glass  itself  was  what  is  known 
as  pot-metal  (glass  with  the  color  mixed  in  in  the 
melting  pot),  and  the  effect  was  rich  and  brilliant. 
One  of  the  chief  qualities  of  old  glass  was  its  uneven- 
ness  of  color. 

Early  colored  windows  were  usually  medallion 
windows  (the  subjects  were  divided  into  small  spaces 
or  medallions  with  a  border  around  the  whole).  The 
figures  filled  the  space  allotted  to  them,  being  de- 
tached either  in  light  or  dark  on  a  simple  ground  of 
one  color.  This  ground  sometimes  had  a  diaper  pat- 
tern upon  it.  The  drawing  of  the  figures  was  natur- 
ally archaic ;  but  this  probably  increased  the  decora- 
tive quality  of  the  whole. 

Grisaille  windows,  on  the  other  hand,  usually  had 
little  colored  glass  in  their  composition.  The  prin- 
cipal patterns  were  ornamental  and  drawn  on  white 
glass  in  the  brown  pigment  before  mentioned.  Some- 
times the  ground  was  hatched  in  line  to  give  it  a 
darker  tone. 

Later  on,  as  facility  in  manufacturing  glass  per- 
mitted the  use  of  larger  pieces,  the  size  of  the  origin- 
ally small  subjects  insensibly  increased.  Another  aid 
to  glaziers  who  wished  to  use  large  panes  was  the  dis- 
covery of  a  manner  of  staining  glass  yellow.  Flashed 
glass  (one  color  coated  with  another)  had  always  been 
known.  With  the  new  method  many  combinations 
could  be  obtained  in  a  single  pane.  Given  white  and 
blue  flashed  together,  the  blue  could  be  abraded  in 
places  and  a  portion  of  the  white  stained  yellow.  The 
blue  could  also  be  stained,  adding  green  to  the  list. 


DESIGN   IN   DECORATIVE   WORK.  171 

But  even  this  did  not  satisfy  the  Renaissance  glass 
workers,  and  they  began  to  use  enamel  painting. 
Here  a  color  is  mixed  vdth  powdered  glass  and  the 
mixture  fired  in.  Enamel  never  enters  very  well  into 
the  pane,  eventually  peels,  and,  moreover,  the  result 
does  not  give  such  rich  color  as  does  pot-metal  glass. 

In  Renaissance  glass  a  single  picture,  for  it  is  pic- 
torial effect  that  is  aimed  at,  usually  fills  the  whole 
window ;  and  architecture  is  likely  to  play  an  impor- 
tant role  in  the  design. 

Of  late  years,  especially  in  English  stained,  glass, 
there  has  been  a  return  to  better  conception  of  design, 
marred  by  an  overuse  of  paint.  Opalescent  glass  has 
also  been  introduced  in  window  work. 

In  our  own  day  an  American  artist,  John  LaFarge, 
has  had  an  immense  influence  on  the  art  by  his  able 
use  of  glass  of  varying  thickness.  A  heavy  piece  of 
glass  is  eaten  away  by  acids,  to  give  high  lights  in  the 
thinner  portions.  Thus  pieces  of  glass  of  consider- 
able size  may  be  used  and  variety  of  light  and  shade 
obtained  without  the  deadening  of  color  and  bril- 
liancy which  occurs  when  a  foreign  pigment  is  intro- 
duced. 

Having  come  so  far,  let  us  examine  the  different 
methods  just  described  and  try  to  appreciate  their 
qualities  and  faults.  The  evident  mission  of  stained 
glass,  not  grisaille,  is  to  present  a  brilliantly,  as  well 
as  harmoniously,  colored  decoration.  More  than  a 
mural  decoration  or  tapestry,  more  than  a  mosaic, 
should  glass  profit  by  its  chief  characteristic,  gem-like 
radiance  and  warmth  of  color.     The  qualities  of  glass 


172  PEACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    DESIGN. 

are  distinctively  decorative,  and  it  follows  that  the 
other  phases  of  art,  those  which  awaken  an  emotion  or 
interest  the  mind,  can  only  be  secondary.  Hence,  the 
subject  of  a  stained  glass  window  should  not  be  too 
predominant ;  should  not  show  St.  Denis  standing  in 
the  flesh  before  us,  his  bloody  head  under  his  arm; 
nor  should  it  even  present  the  illustrious  father  of 
our  country  in  fashion  natural  enough  to  convince  us 
of  his  boyish  integrity. 

We  find  all  of  this  fully  expressed  in  old  glass  of 
the  thirteenth,  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries. 
The  heavy  leading,  when  not  so  evident  as  to  force 
itself  into  prominence— a  fault  of  the  very  old  glass 
—gives  a  contrast  which  accentuates  the  rich  colors 
of  the  design.  There  are  examples  of  this  at  Char- 
tres,  Reims,  the  Sainte  Chapelle,  Notre  Dame  (in  the 
famous  north  rose).  Saint  Etienne  du  Mont  in  Paris 
(glass  in  the  cloister),  the  Duomo  at  Florence  and  of 
a  slightly  later  date  at  Montmorency.* 

A  quality  which  the  old  glass  possessed,  a  quality 
perhaps  enforced  by  its  limitations  as  well  as  by  the 
taste  of  the  artists,  was  almost  uniform  harmony. 
We  have  already  seen  that  small  bits  of  color,  when 
placed  together  in  a  sort  of  mosaic,  are  much  more 
likely  to  combine  than  large  surfaces  merely  juxta- 
posed. Here  the  small  size  of  the  glass  pieces  and  the 
necessity  of  considerable  leading  also  enforced  a  con- 
ventional treatment,  and  diminished  the  temptation  to 
realism,  which  a  natural  representation  always  pre- 
sents. 

*  For  a  description  of  this  glass  see  M.  Lucien  Mi.gne's  excellent 
Monograph;  also  VioUet  le  Due. 

J 


DESIGN    IN    DECOEATIVE    WORK.  173 

The  Renaissance  period,  with  its  large  painted 
panes  (the  shadows  were  stippled),  lost  nearly  all  of 
these  qualities.  White  glass,  the  usual  ground,  de- 
tracted through  its  high  values  in  uncolored  portions, 
from  the  tarnished  enamel  coloring  of  the  rest. 
Moreover,  as  we  have  already  said,  the  decorative 
qualities  gave  place  to  incongruous,  if  not  unskillful, 
pictorial  effusions. 

There  is  a  distinct  objection  to  the  equal  use,  in  the 
same  design,  of  white  and  colored  glass.  In  the  first 
place,  the  effect  of  a  colored  window  is  diminished  by 
curtailing  the  amount  of  color.  But  a  still  greater 
evil  lies  in  the  fact  that  white  glass,  high  in  value, 
blinds  us  to  an  appreciation  of  colored,  while  if  the 
white  is  suflficiently  deadened  by  paint,  it  becomes 
homy  and  disagreeable  in  effect.  Of  course,  if  much 
color  is  introduced  into  a  grisaille  window,  it  destroys 
the  silveriness,  its  chief  characteristic.  Mr.  Lewis  F. 
Day  in  his  excellent  work  entitled ' '  Windows, ' '  speak- 
ing of  the  admixture  of  white  and  color  at  Reims  and 
St.  Denis,  says:*  ''The  amount  of  color  introduced 
into  grisaille  was  never  at  any  time  a  fixed  quantity ; 
one  has  to  allow  something  for  the  predilection  of  the 
artist;  but  here  the  amount  of  color  makes  itself  so 
distinctly  felt  that  the  term  grisaille  no  longer  serves 
to  express  it.  *  *  *  It  would  have  been  diflScult  under 
any  circumstances  to  produce  a  very  satisfactory 
effect  by  so  equally  balancing  white  and  color.  The 
designer  falls  between  two  stools." 


♦  Lewis  F.  Day,  "  Windows,"  London,  B.  T.  Batsford  &  Co.,  1897, 
pp.  119-120. 


174  PEACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    DESIGN. 

Approaching  the  English  glass  and  opalescent 
work,  we  cannot  fail  to  find  much  pleasure  in  the 
quiet  harmonies  obtained  by  better  designers,  pro- 
vided we  close  our  mind's  eye  to  the  glorious  master- 
pieces in  old  glass.  For  certain  places,  where  a  dif- 
fused and  diminished  lighting  is  a  point  in  the  pro- 
gram, opalescent  glass  may  well  claim  a  definite  right 
of  existence. 

Last  of  all,  considering  the  glass  presented  by  Mr. 
LaFarge  and  his  school,  we  again  see  the  true  quali- 
ties of  stained  glass  brought  forward.  The  designer 
must,  however,  remember  that  here  are  no  limitations 
to  act  as  a  safeguard  against  naturalism.  He  must 
be  his  own  restrainer.  If  he  indulges  in  too  great 
thickness  of  glass  he  loses  brilliancy  as  certainly  as 
if  he  tarnished  it;  if  he  disdains  leading  he  will  fall 
into  the  faults  presented  by  large  quantities  of  the 
same  color.  He  must  keep  his  subject  well  within 
the  realms  of  decorative  art. 

Let  us  recapitulate  and  add  a  few  recommenda- 
tions. 

Colored  glass  is  beautiful  primarily  because  of  its 
color;  grisaille  is  so  on  account  of  the  silvery  light 
which  it  gives.  In  each  case  the  treatment  of  the 
design  should  be  decorative  in  character.  Color  and 
grisaille  must  not  be  evenly  balanced  in  a  window— 
the  light  ought  to  be  either  one  thing  or  the  other. 
The  kind  of  window  should  be  selected  with  regard 
to  the  place  it  is  to  decorate,  and  the  character  of  the 
design  would  naturally  be  in  keeping  with  that  of 
the  surrounding  decoration.    As  to  the  treatment  of 


DESIGN   IN   DECORATIVE   WORK.  175 

the  glass,  the  glazier  need  not  be  afraid  of  leads. 
They  enhance  the  etf  ect  of  the  color  and  guard  against 
too  great  realism.  Moreover,  a  good  design  in  the 
leading  will  always  have  a  value  of  its  own.  If  the 
design  is  in  color  the  glass  should  be  pot-metal ;  each 
piece  glazed  up  separately,  making  what  is  called  a 
mosaic  window.  Enamel  is  not  brilliant  and  not 
lasting.  Painted  shadows  and  modelling  ought  to  be 
as  limited  as  possible.  In  LaFarge  and  Tiffany 
glass  paint  is  only  used  for  faces.  The  simple  brown 
pigment  is  sometimes  useful  in  diaper  patterns  to 
attenuate  a  too  prominent  color.  Some  drawing 
always  seems  necessary  in  the  features  of  a  face.  It 
is  better  not  to  use  tones  of  paint ;  even  the  stippled 
mat  tones  may  be  discarded  and  all  shadows  hatched. 
M.  Mayeux,  in  his  discussion  of  the  subject,  makes  a 
plea  for  this.  Grisaille  and  quarry  patterns  will,  of 
course,  be  traced  and  hatched  in  paint. 

Only  experience  and  natural  taste  can  dictate  the 
combination  and  comparative  values  of  colors  and 
the  amount  of  reduction  or  attenuation  needful  to 
make  light  bits  of  glass  take  their  place  at  a  distance. 
This,  however,  is  not  a  text-book  for  glass  workers, 
only  a  suggestion  of  the  tendency  which  the  art,  as  a 
part  of  decorative  composition,  should  evince.  Here 
it  is  enough  to  say  that  there  must  not  be  great  con- 
trasts in  the  values  of  glass  in  the  same  window. 
Colors  which  do  not  easily  harmonize  will  usually  be 
helped  by  the  introduction  of  a  white  fillet  or  dark 
line  between  them;  thus  are  blue  and  red  prevented 
from  fusing  into  purple. 


176  PRACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    DESIGN. 

A  large  piece  of  glass  of  one  color  is  not  agreeable. 
A  ground  may  be  leaded  in  several  pieces;  the 
easiest  maimer  of  leading  is  the  best.  Unequal  glass 
always  gives  a  better  effect  than  does  evenly  toned. 

A  suggestion  of  M.  Mayeux  is  that  the  dominant 
tones  in  a  window  should  correspond  to  those  of  sky 
and  climate ;  thus  the  greatest  effect  is  obtained.  The 
Dome  des  Invalides  in  Paris  offers  an  interesting 
contrast  of  color  in  glass,  which,  if  somewhat  the- 
atrical, is  yet  impressive.  Here  it  is  evident  that, 
despite  the  climatic  tonality,  glass  may  still  assert  its 
own  individuality.  The  general  tone  of  the  dome  is 
given  by  slightly  bluish  glass  diffusing  a  cold  light, 
while  on  each  side  of  the  altar  are  brilliant  orange 
windows,  which  seem  to  flood  with  sunshine  the  Holy 
of  Holies. 

When  the  sun  is  shining  on  one  side  of  a  building, 
some,  perhaps  all,  of  the  windows  are  seen  under 
unfavorable  conditions;  those  catching  the  sunlight 
may  be  too  brilliant  and  those  in  the  shadow  dimmed 
by  excess  of  light  in  the  interior.  .Therefore,  in  all 
countries  not  too  far  south,  it  is  better  to  design  for 
an  overcast  sky.  Then  one  would  only  have  to  ask 
how  much  light  the  windows  will  usually  receive. 
Perhaps  one  might  use  somewhat  deeper  tones  in  a 
south  transept  rose  than  in  a  north  rose. 

Before  leaving  the  question  of  glass  windows,  there 
is  a  word  to  say  about  domestic  work.  Much  more 
than  has  been  done  in  pure  ornamental  glass  design 
certainly  remains  to  be  done.  It  is  possible  that 
complicated,   and,   especially,   deeply   colored   glass 


DESIGN   IN   DECORATIVE   WORK.  177 

would  be  Tinsuited  to  a  house,  because  light  is  need- 
ful. In  most  cases  an  attractive  lead  design  is  suffi- 
cient. If  the  window  is  not  to  be  looked  through, 
roundels,  or  bottle  glass,  may  be  used  to  advantage. 
Again,  the  introduction  of  a  colored  device  or  small 
cartouche  may  be  acceptable.  All  must  be  in  keep- 
ing with  the  rest  of  the  interior. 

Simple  glass  work  may  be  useful  for  screens,  or 
in  the  hundred  other  ways  to  be  suggested  by  an 
ingenious  imagination.  We  may  also  mention,  en 
passant,  the  Arabian  claustra  set  in  white  marble  or 
in  a  white  composition,  translucent  stone  work  and 
the  use  of  alabaster.  Such  effects  are  very  beau- 
tiful, but  cannot  be  substituted  for  stained  glass 
proper.  Our  own  Tiffany  Favril  glass,  so  appro- 
priate for  lamp  shades,  vases  and  similar  objects, 
might  take  a  place  in  architectural  design. 

From  the  decorations  appropriate  to  the  holes  in 
our  walls  we  naturally  pass  to  that  of  the  walls  them- 
selves, i.  e.,  to  mural  painting. 

Once  more,  our  present  duty  is  merely  to  unravel 
from  the  tangled  skein  of  tendencies,  the  manner  best 
suited  to  the  decoration  of  a  building,  through  the 
painter's  art.  As  in  stained  glass,  a  fresco  (using 
the  word  in  its  popular  sense)  should  first  of  all  be 
essentially  decorative.  It  should  be  pleasing  to  the 
eye.  It  differs  from  glass,  however,  in  that  it  must 
make  interesting  a  flat,  opaque  surface.  The  neces- 
sity for  pure  and  brilliant  coloring  is,  therefore, 
lessened,  and  in  its  place  is  substituted  another 
13 


178  PEACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    DESIGN. 

requirement,  which  we  may  call  ''flatness.'*  Since 
the  coloring  must  play  a  secondary  role,  the  subject 
may  become  more  important ;  as  a  result,  the  compo- 
sition, broad  in  scope  and  calculated  for  the  distance 
from  which  it  will  be  viewed,  and  the  drawing  should 
be  carefully  sought.  Even  here  the  subject  matter 
ought  not  to  contain  harrowing  suggestions,  or  should 
at  least  be  so  attenuated  in  interpretation  that  we  feel 
ourselves  before  a  printed  page  of  description,  not 
in  the  actual  presence  of  a  tragedy  or  crime. 

It  always  happens  that  the  room  or  hall  where  a 
fresco  is  placed  has  a  definite  destination,  and  natur- 
ally the  subject  matter  of  the  painting  will  be  some- 
what predetermined;  likewise  the  tonality,  which 
must  be  selected  to  harmonize  with  the  surrounding 
architecture. 

En  resume,  a  wall  painting  must,  first,  please,  and 
second,  interest.  It  should  always  remain  flat  and 
never  induce  the  eye  to  believe  real  the  objects  por- 
trayed. It  must  never  make  a  hole  in  the  wall.  It 
is  to  harmonize  with  the  architecture.  Lastly,  it 
should  be  appropriate  to  the  especial  place  which  it 
will  occupy.  To  explain  this  we  must  speak  of  two 
distinct  kinds  of  frescoes,  viz :  those  on  a  vertical  and 
those  on  a  horizontal  surface  or  ceiling.  The  keynote 
of  the  requirements  of  each  lies  in  one  of  our  tenets : 
''Decoration  should  always  be  natural.  In  other 
words,  while  the  compositions  belonging  to  the  first 
group  should  contain  elements  or  figures  which  define 
a  top  and  bottom  in  the  design,  those  of  the  second 
should  not  usually  tend  toward  any  particular  direc- 


DESIGN   IN   DECORATIVB   WORK.  179 

tion,  and  must  always  appear  viewed  from  under- 
neath. The  Guido  Reni  Aurora  in  the  Roman  palace 
of  the  Rospigliosi,  a  composition  evidently  designed 
on  a  vertical  surface,  seems  to  fall  upon  the  luckless 
observer.  It  is  difficult  to  introduce  architecture 
into  a  ceiling  decoration  without  its  seeming  askew 
and  ready  to  tumble.  Where  perspective  is  defined 
it  is  necessary  arbitrarily  to  choose  a  point  of  view; 
in  consequence,  the  composition  and  drawing  are 
false  from  any  other  point. 

The  different  methods  of  decorative  painting  are 
so  well  known  that  it  may  be  out  of  place  to  describe 
them  here.  Real  fresco  must  be  done  in  water  color 
while  the  plaster  of  the  wall  is  fresh.  Such  work 
was  sometimes  retouched  in  tempora;  color  mixed 
with  yolk  of  egg  to  give  it  sufficient  adhesiveness. 
During  Van  Eyck's  time  oil  painting  was  introduced 
into  Italy,  and  mural  painters  began  to  work  in  this 
medium.  Now-a-days  such  work  is  often  done  on 
canvas  in  the  studio,  and  later  fastened  in  place. 
In  order  to  avoid  the  brilliant  surface  presented  by 
an  oil  painting,  wax  is  sometimes  mixed  with  the 
medium. 

The  best  examples  of  mural  painting  are  to  be 
found  in  the  old  Pompeian  work;  the  Byzantine,  the 
early  Italian  of  Giotto,  Botticelli,  etc.  (the  former  is 
to  be  sought  in  Florence,  but  two  exquisite  frescoes 
of  the  latter  are  in  the  Musee  du  Louvre  in  Paris) ; 
the  Renaissance  as  shown  by  Leonardo,  Michael 
Angelo,  and  Raffaelle,  later  in  the  Venetian  paint- 
ings of  Paul  Veronese  and  Tintoretto,  and  in  the 


180  PRACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    DESIGN. 

French  work  of  Louis  XVI.  time,  with  that  of 
Boucher,  De  la  Roche,  Flandrin  and  Baudry. 

In  spite  of  the  beauty  and  lasting  quality  of  the 
result,  artists  of  the  present  day  do  not  usually  paint 
in  real  fresco,  because  of  the  difficulty  and  cumber- 
someness  of  the  process.  Ingres  tried  to  revive  the 
art  and  finally  gave  it  up.  Some  of  the  northern 
painters,  Carl  Larsson,  etc.,  have  worked  directly  on 
the  wet  plaster. 

After  many  abuses— painters  skilled  in  represent- 
ing nature  are  only  too  prone  to  forget  their  vows 
and  attempt  to  make  pictures  instead  of  decorations 
—decorative  painting  has,  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth 
.century,  reached  a  height  as  great  as  any  attained  in 
preceding  years.  This  is  due  to  Paul  Puvis  de 
Chavannes,  who  died  with  the  century  to  which  he 
lent  such  fame.  His  masterpieces  combine  all  the 
qualities  of  a  decoration,  with  wonderfully  broad, 
with  truly  grand  conceptions  of  idea.  Among  the 
greatest  of  these  works  is  the  allegorical  decoration 
in  the  amphitheatre  of  the  New  Sorbonne ;  vieing  with 
it,  however,  are  the  frescoes  in  the  E  scalier  of  the 
Musee  de  Picardie  at  Amiens.  Other  works  are  to 
be  found  in  the  Pantheon  and  Hotel  de  Ville  in  Paris, 
in  Rouen,  and  in  our  own  Boston  Public  Library. 

Another  modern  French  painter,  Luc  Olivier  Mer- 
son,  has  given  the  world  some  very  beautiful  frescoes 
in  those  of  the  Palais  de  Justice  in  Paris.  Interest- 
ing work  of  Besnard  is  to  be  found  in  the  Ecole  de 
Pharmacie  and  in  the  Salle  de  Mariage  of  the  Mairie 
of  the  I®'  Arrondissement  in  the  same  city. 


DESIGN   IN   DECORATIVE   WOEK.  181 

Of  the  English  painters  of  modem  times,  Rosetti 
and  Bume  Jones  possess  decorative  qualities;  but 
the  tendencies  of  such  schools  seem  almost  too  affected 
for  paintings  which  are  to  be  permanently  in  place. 

The  work  of  John  Sargent  in  the  Boston  Public 
Library  is  of  great  interest,  as  is  also  some  of  that  in 
the  Congressional  Library  in  Washington.  Confu- 
sion, however,  should  be  avoided  in  a  decoration,  and 
this  is  unfortunately  the  fault  of  many  modern 
painters. 

It  is  impossible  to  enumerate  all  the  modem 
sources  of  inspiration  for  the  student.  Happily,  true 
inspiration  comes  from  within,  not  from  without. 

There  are  branches  of  decorative  drawing  and 
painting  other  than  those  appertaining  to  mural 
decoration,  branches  which  must  also  be  of  greatest 
interest  to  the  architect.  The  field,  which  includes 
pen  and  ink  work,  illustrating,  designing  of  book 
covers,  posters,  etc.,  lies  half  way  between  the  realm 
of  the  painter  and  that  of  his  brother  artist.  Some 
of  our  younger  architects  have  already  made  a  name 
in  these  directions,  while  the  more  legitimate  pro- 
prietors of  the  brush  have  come  to  meet  them. 

One  of  the  best  known  portrayors  of  architectural 
subjects  is  Joseph  Pennell,  but  the  maimers  of  the 
different  men  vary  to  such  an  extent  that  it  would  be 
as  difficult  to  make  a  comparison  as  it  would  be 
wrong  to  imitate  any  one  of  them.  Let  the  student 
keep  in  mind  that  direct  study  and  practice  are  alone 
of  use,  that  conscientiousness  is  better  than  chic,  that 
indication  always  means  good  drawing.    Let  him 


182  PRACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    DESIGN. 

take  Ms  time,  and  yet  work  as  simply  as  possible, 
never  drawing  more  than  he  sees.* 

As  to  posters,  above  all,  they  must  *  *  carry. ' '  They 
should  be  simple  bits  of  decoration  attracting  the 
attention  and  legible  from  a  distance.  Naturally, 
another  essential  is  that  they  be  characteristic  of  the 
subject  they  announce.  The  list  of  names  noted  for 
poster  work  is  too  long  and  too  changeable  to  give 
here;  Cheret,  Grasset,  Steinlen  and  their  fellows 
were  known  five  years  ago  and  are  now  being  for- 
gotten.   Evidently,  such  fame  is  not  durable. 

Another  group  in  decorative  design  is  that  filled 
by  stamped  leather,  burnt  leather  and  wall  paper. 
Here  again  the  decorative  qualities  must  be  preemi- 
nent. It  is  to  be  regretted  that  leather  is  not  more 
extensively  used  in  interior  decoration.  The  Spanish 
and  French  work,  and  especially  the  Flemish  stamped 
or  gilded  leather  designs  of  the  sixteenth  century 
should  be  a  great  inspiration. 

In  wall  paper  designing  M.  Mayeuxf  gives  some 
excellent  suggestions.  Making  his  plea  for  conven- 
tional treatment,  he  advises  against  the  introduction 
of  animals,  excepting  only  heraldic  figures.  He  also 
advises  against  the  portrayal  of  a  too  direct  or  pre- 
cise lighting;  the  shadows  are  sure  to  be  in  contra- 
diction with  the  real  lighting  of  some  part  of  the 
room  where  the  paper  is  hung.  Another  fault  he 
notes  is  the  tendency  of  some  designers  to  introduce 

*  An  interesting  review  of  the  art  of  the  pen  is  "  Pen  Drawing 
and  Pen  Draughtsman,"  by  Joseph   Pennell.      London,  Maemillan. 
t  La  Composition  Decorative,  p.  281. 


DESIGN   IN   DECORATIVE   WOBK.  183 

details  of  small  scale.  All  suggestions  of  depth  in 
the  design  should  be  avoided.  Last  of  all,  he  de- 
plores the  attempts,  cherished  by  manufacturers,  to 
make  wall  papers  resemble  an  hundred  and  one  other 
substances— leather,  canvas,  velvet,  etc.  The  subject 
of  wall  paper  leads  us  to  a  review  of  the  question  of 
tapestries,  an  art  of  which  the  former  is  in  a  measure 
the  descendaat. 

In  trying  to  define  the  requisites  of  tapestry  design 
I  shall  quote  from  M.  Eugene  Miintz's  review  of  the 
question  in  ''La  Tapisserie."  Since  tapestries  are 
intended  for  decorations  of  richly  furnished  rooms, 
grace  the  reunions  of  a  brilliant  society,  or,  even 
more,  are  often  used  only  to  lend  distinction  to  public 
festivals,  the  character  of  the  design,  subject,  com- 
position and  coloring  should  be  brilliant  and  sump- 
tuous. 

On  page  11  of  La  Tapisserie*  he  says :  "Nous  nous 
serious  bien  mal  exprime  s'il  ne  resultait  jusqu'a 
1 'evidence,  des  considerations  qui  precedent,  que  la 
tapisserie  est  un  art  essentiellement  somptuaire, 
inseparable  de  I'idee  de  magnificence,  et  destine  a 
charmer,  a  seduire,  a  eblouir  bien  plus  qu'a  instruir 
ou  emouvoir.  L 'expression  de  la  souffrance  ou  de 
1 'abnegation,  les  hautes  conceptions  philosophiques, 
I'austerite,  ne  sont  point  de  mise  ici.  Disposant  des 
factures  les  plus  parfaits  de  I'art  textile,  de  tons  les 
raffinements  de  la  teinture,  la  sole,  les  fils  d 'argent 
et  d'or,  le  pourpre,  I'ecarlate,  on  ne  s 'opiniatrera  pas 

*  Eug&ne  Muntz,  "  La  Tapisserie,"  Paris,  Libraries- Imprimeries 
Rgunies. 


184  PRACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    DESIGN. 

a  rechercher  les  colorations  ternes  a  traduire  les  idees 
lugubres. ' ' 

He  goes  on  to  say  that  in  choice  of  subject  those 
which  are  too  intimate,  which  contain  too  few  per- 
sonages, should  be  set  aside.  As  to  the  arrangement 
of  the  composition,  he  favors  a  distribution  of  the 
interest  over  the  whole  design  and  decries  too  fine  a 
finish.  This  he  sustains  because  of  the  character- 
istics which  the  design  should  possess  and  also  be- 
cause the  tapestry  itself,  once  hung,  must  necessarily 
be  more  or  less  displaced  and  distorted:*  '*I1  faut, 
d'une  part,  ne  pas  reculer  devant  I'abondance  des 
details,  multiplier  les  figures  de  mainere  a  produire 
un  groupement  tres  nourri;  de  I'autre  donner  a 
Paction  cette  regularite,  cette  ponderation,  cette  tenue 
sans  lesquelles  il  n'y  a  point  d'art  decoratif."  He 
adds  that  the  arrangement  lauded  by  Charles  Blanc 
in  the  Grammaire  des  Arts  Decoratifs,  placing  the 
point  of  sight  very  high  in  the  composition,  in  order 
that  the  whole  may  be  filled  with  figures,  may  be  use- 
ful, but  not  absolutely  necessary.  He  recommends 
the  arrangement  in  the  form  of  a  frieze,  and  goes  on 
to  speak  of  the  treatment  of  the  distance  in  a  tapestry : 
''Veut-on  donner  plus  de  profondeur  a  la  composi- 
tion, j'insisterai  sur  la  necessite  de  soutenir  les  fig- 
ures du  premier  plan  par  un  fond  tres  nourri,  notam- 
ment  par  des  vues  d 'architecture."  Muntz  also 
countenances  the  introduction  of  subjects  foreign  to 
the  main  composition,  provided  they  be  decorative. 

M.  Mayeux  considers  the  high  point  of  sight  un- 

•  "  La  Tapisserie,"  p.  10. 


DESIGN   IN   DECORATIVE   WOBK.  185 

necessary.  He  condemns  the  introduction  of  heavy 
shadows  which,  of  necessity,  make  dark  and  undecora- 
tive  blots.  Speaking  of  the  border  Mayeux  remarks* 
that  it  may  be  treated  as  though  in  front  of,  in  the 
same  plane  with,  or  (as  a  mat)  behind  the  subject. 
In  the  first  and  third  cases  the  scale  of  the  border  is 
usually  different  from  that  of  the  subject.  Farther 
on  he  remarks  that  although  the  general  coloring  of 
the  border  and  subject  may  be  different,  they  should 
not  only  harmonize,  but  some  notes  of  the  border 
colors  should  be  found  in  the  main  composition. 

Miintz  deplores  the  manner  in  which  certain  artists 
of  the  later  Renaissance  have  tried  to  imitate  gold 
frames  in  the  design  of  the  border.  He  praisesf  the 
borders  which  Raffaelle  composed  for  the  celebrated 
suite  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles:  *'C'est  tout  un 
monde  que  ces  bordures,  d'ont  les  motifs  se  deroulent 
tantot  avec  le  calme  majeste  d'un  bas-relief  antique 
et  tantot  jaillissent,  se  pressent,  se  multiplient  comme 
les  etincelles  d'un  feu  d 'artifice.  Le  maitre  y  a 
prodigue  les  figures  les  plus  nobles,  les  Parques,  les 
Heures,  les  Saisons,  Hercule  supportant  le  globe 
terrestre,  et  des  omements  d'une  grace  achevee: 
termes,  satyres,  grotesques,  lion  reposant  sous  une 
branche  de  laurier,  vases  de  fleurs  d'un  galbe  ad- 
mirable, banderoles,  ecussons,  les  plus  beaux  produits 
de  la  nature  et  les  plus  belles  inventions  de  1  'art. ' ' 

As  a  general  recommendation,  the  more  the  tones 
of  a  tapestry  are  simplified  the  better.    If  the  initia- 

*  "  La  Composition  Decorative,"  p.  286. 
t  "  La  Tapiaserie,"  p.  189. 


186  PRACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    DESIGN. 

tive  were  still  left  to  the  weaver,  that  he,  like  his  pre- 
decessors, might  use  his  judgment  and  interpret 
instead  of  copy  the  models,  undoubtedly  the  tendency 
to  make  historical  pictures  of  tapestries  would  be 
lessened.  The  almost  infinite  number  of  colors  and 
tones  now  at  the  disposition  of  the  tapestry  weaver 
is  a  subject  for  commiseration  rather  than  congratu- 
lation. 

Designing  for  a  carpet,  no  perspective  should  be 
indulged  in,  nor  should  shadows  which  suggest  relief 
be  depicted.  The  subject,  distinctly  conventional, 
ought,  as  with  mosaic,  never  to  contain  elements  on 
which  one  would  hesitate  to  walk.  The  same  may  be 
remarked  of  designs  for  furniture,  seats  of  chairs, 
etc. 

During  the  fourteenth  century  the  best  tapestries 
came  from  the  looms  of  northern  France  and  Flan- 
ders, especially  from  those  of  Paris  and  Arras.  Dur- 
ing the  fifteenth  century  Arras  eclipsed  Paris,  but 
finally,  toward  the  end  of  the  century,  in  1479,  the 
expulsion  of  her  inhabitants,  by  Louis  XI.,  closed  the 
scene  of  her  glories. 

The  palm  for  the  manufax3ture  of  tapestries  was 
held  by  Brussels  during  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury and  the  greater  part  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
and  in  the  latter  period,  we  also  see  Italy  coming  to 
the  fore.  Moreover,  the  Italian  artists  of  the  Eenais- 
sance  exercised  a  dominating  influence  on  tapestry 
design  and  were  called  upon  to  furnish  cartoons  even 
outside  of  their  own  country. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  Henry 


DESIGN   IN   DECOBATIVE   WORK.  187 

IV.  of  France  began  to  encourage  the  manufacture 
of  tapestry  at  Paris,  and  founded  several  ateliers. 
In  1662  Louis  XIV.  founded  the  justly  famed  Manu- 
facture des  Gobelins,  a  wise  step  which  he  followed 
up  in  1667  by  founding  those  of  Beauvais.  Le  Brun 
was  chosen  as  director  of  the  Gobelins,  and  to  him  are 
due  not  only  some  of  the  best  cartoons  which  have 
been  painted  as  tapestry  models,  but  as  well  the  ex- 
cellent policy  which  lent  such  just  fame  to  his  charge. 

Under  Louis  XV.,  Oudry  and  Boucher  exercised  a 
pernicious  influence  in  curtailing  the  liberty  of  in- 
terpretation accorded  to  the  weavers.  Boucher's 
designs,  however,  are  charming,  and,  in  spite  of  the 
want  of  elevation  in  his  choice  of  subject,  truly 
decorative. 

In  1625  a  new  center  had  been  established  for  the 
manufacture  of  tapestries.  James  11.  of  England 
installed  the  looms  at  Mortlake,  and  these,  under  the 
judicious  management  of  Sir  Francis  Crane,  ranked 
for  half  a  century  as  leaders  in  the  art. 

The  decadence,  begun  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
continued  on  into  the  nineteenth.  Of  late  years  so 
much  has  been  said  on  this  subject  and  such  sincere 
efforts  are  being  made  to  restore  to  the  ancient  art 
some  of  its  earlier  integrity,  that  the  optimistic 
already  foresee  a  new  Renaissance. 

In  seeking  sources  of  inspiration  for  the  study  of 
carpet  design  we  must  turn  to  the  East  once  more. 
Arabia,  Persia,  Asia  Minor,  etc.,  are  the  countries 
whose  carpets  have  hitherto  outrivalled,  and  still 
surpass,  all  of  which  the  West  can  boast. 


PART  V. 

CHAPTER  I. 
Composition    in    Plan. 

To  read  rules  for  the  construction  of  a  plan  will 
never  make  the  aspirant  an  architect.  The  thousand 
and  one  details  which  the  designer  must  notice;  the 
characteristics,  whether  conventional  or  logical,  which 
he  must  feel ;  above  all,  the  ability  to  reason  out  the 
necessities  of  a  plan,  to  arrange  them  in  his  mind, 
and  finally  transcribe  them  on  paper,  these  three  dif- 
ferent requisites  for  successful  composition  can  only 
be  acquired  by  years  of  practice.  Naturally,  an 
office  training  will  help  in  the  first,  and  a  wide  hori- 
zon in  every-day  life  in  the  second,  while  a  thorough 
study  of  pure  mathematics,  geometry,  etc.,  will  pre- 
pare the  mind  for  the  third.  But  only  attempts  at 
composing  (the  weeding  out  of  a  program  and  final 
fulfillment  of  its  clauses,  and  above  all,  of  its  title), 
seconded  by  sound  criticism,  can  finally  form  the 
architect  and  distinguished  him  from  the  decora- 
tor. 

And  so,  at  first,  it  seems  almost  useless  to  write 
lengthily  on  the  subject.  However,  remembering 
how  much  I  myself  wished  for  some  definite  and 
tabulated  recommendations,  I  feel  it  wise  to  make  a 

188 


BULES    OF    COMPOSITION.  189 

few  suggestions,  whicli,  if  not  all  sufficient,  may  at 
least  be  of  use  to  another. 

First,  the  rules  which  apply  to  composition  in  plan 
are,  in  essence,  those  which  apply  to  other  kinds  of 
composition.  We  must  have  Truth,  Sincerity,  Hon- 
esty and  Character,  and  in  the  technical  considera- 
tions, a  climax,  with  a  proper  leading  up  of  minor 
parts  that  contrast  in  their  arrangement.  This  may 
all  sound  pictorial,  but  only  the  casual  reader  will 
fail  to  see  truth  in  the  assertion. 

Truth  and  honesty  in  a  plan  mean  that  the  design 
expresses  what  it  pretends  to  be ;  inversely,  shall  cor- 
respond to  the  program.  Many  able  architects  are 
prone  to  disregard  this,  and  thereby  bring  the  great- 
est discredit  on  the  profession.  A  business  man,  or 
committee  of  men,  having  studied  the  question  of 
need  and  knowing  how  much  money  they  can  invest, 
go  to  an  eminent  architect  and  ask  for  a  definite  prac- 
tical result.  The  architect  accepts  the  charge;  but, 
full  of  what  he  considers  artistic  ideas,  fails  to  pay 
proper  attention  to  the  future  uses  of  the  building; 
and  later  on,  when  the  owners  discover  that  they  have 
spent  good  money,  and  are  yet  deprived  of  a  good 
investment,  they  dub  their  architect  (very  justly), 
if  not  a  thief,  at  least  a  bungler.  Some  of  the  most 
attractive  looking  buildings  in  America  show  prac- 
tical and,  from  the  point  of  view  of  plan,  most  regret- 
table faults. 

Of  course,  it  sometimes  happens  that  an  ignorant 
or  dishonest  committee,  rather  than  the  architect, 
may  be  to  blame.    Into  such  questions  we  cannot  go. 


190  COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 

Unluckily,  no  profession,  and  architecture  must,  sad 
to  say,  be  a  profession  as  well  as  an  art,  is  free  from 
bad  practices.  The  truly  conscientious  man,  when  he 
has  only  the  choice  of  discreditable  work  or  no  work, 
would  decide  for  no  work,  and  thus  be  likely  to 
gain  in  the  end.  Although  minus  a  certain  sum  in 
commissions,  his  reputation  would  remain  intact. 
Let  him  never  imagine,  however,  that  to  insist  on  an 
impracticable  solution  is  a  virtue.  It  is  here  that  the 
distinction  comes  in.  The  architect  should  be  thank- 
ful to  a  proprietor  who  saves  him  from  being  imprac- 
tical, despite  the  irksomeness  of  having  to  commence 
anew. 

As  in  our  first  inquiry,  we  find  that  Character  is 
merely  Honesty  in  another  guise.  We  may  define  it 
as  the  quality  which  announces  the  destination  and 
use  of  a  plan. 

Plans  may,  generally  speaking,  be  divided  into  two 
kinds,  i.  e.,  the  one  which  has  an  exterior  silhouette, 
and  that  enclosed  between  given  lines  (party  walls, 
etc.).  Compositions  for  the  country  usually  come 
under  the  former  head  and  those  for  a  city,  where 
every  bit  of  ground  must  be  utilized,  under  the 
second.  This  distinction  in  shape  is  most  important 
in  deciding  the  category  in  which  a  plan  must  be 
placed;  and  it  is  as  much  a  fault  to  bring  down  to 
four  straight  lines  one  whose  silhouette  should  be  an 
attractive  element  as  it  would  be  to  waste  space  in  a 
city,  and  set  the  building  back  from  the  street. 

Another  element  which  greatly  influences  the  gen- 
eral aspect  of  a  plan  is  the  character  of  the  ground— 


GROUND    FORMATION. 


191 


whether  it  is  inclined  or  not,  etc.  When  the  ground 
is  inclined  the  different  buildings  of  the  composition 
should  all  be  designed  with  their  longest  axis  or 
greatest  dimensions  perpen- 
dicular to  the  line  of  greatest 
inclination  of  the  ground. 
This  is  another  essential. 
Moreover,  it  usually  happens 
that  when  ground  is  inclined 
there  is  a  view  of  which  to 
take  advantage.  In  such  a 
case  the  plan  must  ''open 
out"  at  the  bottom,  present- 
ing the  general  form  of  an  in- 
verted V.  Fig.  68  shows  dif- 
ferent forms  of  this,  a  being 
a  mistaken  closing  in  at  the 
bottom,  while  h  only  becomes  good  when  the  inclina- 
tion is  very  steep.  Considering  individual  buildings, 
the  greatest  length  should  be  toward  the  view. 

We  see  thus  that  ground  formation  is  a  second 
factor  in  determining  the  shape  of  a  plan.  The  artist 
takes  advantage  of  what  nature  sets  before  him ;  only 
the  unskillful  try  to  change  nature  by  impossible 
earthworks.  In  landscape  gardening  (an  art  that 
comes  directly  within  the  dominion  of  the  planner) 
realization  of  this  is  all  important. 

Before  definitely  leaving  the  present  subject,  it 
may  be  well  to  mention  some  exceptions  permissible 
when  placing  buildings  on  an  inclined  ground.    It  is 


Fig.  68. 


192  COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 

allowable  to  build  ligbt  passage  ways,  inclined  or 
with,  frequent  flights  of  steps,  parallel  to  the  line  of 
greatest  inclination,  and  at  times,  although  rarely,  it 
is  better  to  place  a  group  of  short  buildings  perpen- 
dicular to  the  line  of  inclination,  rather  than  each 
building  of  the  group.  A  glance  at  Fig.  69  will  ex- 
plain this.  M.  Deglane  one 
day  remarked,  during  a  criti- 
cism, ''The  architect  can 
never  have  perfection.  He 
must  always  choose  the  lesser  of  two  evils. ' ' 

Another  most  important  factor  giving  character  to 
a  plan  is  the  use  and  its  resultant  interior  arrange- 
ment and  indication.  Naturally,  there  are  certain 
peculiarities  which  define  differences  between  plans 
of  marked  characteristics.  A  large  department  store 
or  an  office  building  would  be  utterly  unlike  an  opera 
house  with  its  circular  auditorium.  But  we  must  go 
farther  than  such  mere  outposts  and  remember  that 
there  are  elements  of  dissimilarity  between  the  opera 
house  and  the  concert  hall,  nicer  distinctions  none  the 
less  indispensable.  The  opera  house  needs  in  its 
decoration  a  more  important-  treatment,  brilliant, 
because  a  place  of  amusement,  but  refined  and  with 
a  certain  restrained  or  even  classical  feeling.  The 
concert  hall  (the  more  popular  class)  might  still  have 
a  semi-circular  auditorium,  but  the  decoration  should 
be  lighter  and  gayer.  As  a  result,  the  points  would 
not  present  the  same  surface,  would  not  translate 
simple  wall  space  which  must  act  as  a  ' '  repoussoir. ' ' 
If  architects  but  keep  in  mind  the  decoration  and 


1*? 


GROUND     FORMATION.  193 

later  construction  of  their  buildings,  they  will  not 
fail  in  indication  in  plan. 

We  may  well  add  a  few  general  directions  to  guide 
the  beginner  in  interpreting  broad  classes  of  build- 
ings.    Where  the  public  is  to  come,  make  ample  all 
the  approaches,  entrances,  exits  and  general  effects. 
Where  there  are  to  be  reception-rooms,  from  the 
French  point  of  view,  there  should  always  be  a  court 
of  honor,  ''Celui  qui  dit  'Hotel'  dit  *Cour  d'Hon- 
neur. '  ' '    This,  perhaps,  is  less  true  in  America.    The 
charming  plans  of  the  Louis  XV.  '  *  hotels, ' '  as  shown 
in  existing  examples,  and  also  in  the  designs  of 
Blondel,  Briseux  and  other  artists  of  the  time,  had 
their  courts  of  honor  on  the  side  toward  the  street, 
and  (a  most  sensible  arrangement,  which  we  moderns 
might  well  copy)  delightfully  arranged  gardens  be- 
hind,  overlooked  by  all  the  reception  and  living 
rooms.    When  a  program  implies  a  conglomeration 
of  persons  who  must  remain  within  the  limits  of  the 
buildings   (such  a  barracks  or  a  school)   the  chief 
element  of  the  plan  should  be  a  large  court  or  open 
space.    It  is  not  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  the 
whole  should  seem  rather  a  plan  of  a  quadrangle, 
with  buildings  on  the  outskirts.    Last,  where  a  com- 
parison of  work  and  study-rooms  occurs  (as  in  a 
manual  training  school)  the  former  should  occupy 
very  many  times  the  space  given  up  to  the  latter. 

We  have  said  that  the  technical  laws  for  arranging 
a  plan  are  those  which  apply  to  all  compositions. 
Turning  back  to  our  summary  of  laws  (page  42),  we 
remember  that  there  must  be  a  climax  or  focal  point 

14 


194 


COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 


placed  in  the  most  important  position ;  that  all  other 
elements  must  lead  up  to  the  climax  and  contrast  in 
their  inter-relations;  and  that  the  whole  must  have 
harmony.    In  planning,   then,   our  most  important 

element,  perhaps  a 
public  reception  hall 
in  the  White  House, 
the  high  altar  in  a 
church,  the  auditori- 
um and  stage  in  a 
theatre  should  still  be 
given  the  most  impor- 
tant position. 

And  what  is  this 
most  important  posi- 
tion? In  a  symmet- 
rical plan  it  will  natu- 
rally be  on  the  princi- 
pal axis.  But  where 
on  that  axis  ?  Gener- 
ally speaking,  at  the 
back  or  head  of  the 
plan,  provided  we 
have  a  simple  compo- 
sition before  us,  not 
requiring  an  impor- 
tant posterior  en- 
trance. The  Grand  Prix  plan  of  M.  Chaussemiche 
(Fig.  70)  is  such  a  solution.  Here,  then,  is  the  defi- 
nite rule,  viz:  in  the  usual  plan,  having  no  im- 
portant   posterior    entrance,    the    climax    should 


Fig.  71. 


THE     STAIECASE.  195 

be  at  the  back,  and  approach  along  the  axis  should 
be  kept  entirely  open.  Fig.  71  shows  two  violations 
of  this,  which  yet  at  first  sight  might  seem  feasible. 
The  desire  to  reach  an  upper  floor,  in  attractive 
fashion,  leads  to  the  blocking  of  the  approach  to  the 
main  feature.  In  b,  designed  for  inclined  ground, 
the  important  point  itself  blocks  the  axis  by  being  too 
far  forward ;  c  is  the  proper  arrangement. 

The  average  student  is  strongly  tempted  to  place 
a  staircase  on  the  axis;  yet  it  is  fatal  in  almost  all 
cases  except  the  following:  that  of  the  opera  house 
or  theatre,  of  the  State  Capitol,  and  similar  buildings, 
and  of  the  library  whose  reading  room  is  on  an  upper 
floor.  The  reason  for  these  exceptions  is  evident 
enough,  for  the  staircase  becomes  an  access  to,  not  a 
screen  before  the  climax.  The  opera  house  of  Paris 
is  an  eminent  example  of  the  successful  use  of  a  mon- 
umental staircase,  placed  on  axis  as  an  approach  to 
the  important  feature  of  the  composition. 

When  a  staircase  is  on  an  important  axis,  it  may 
well  be  either  a  straight  or  a  triple  motive  one.  In 
the  latter  case  it  should  begin  to  rise  in  the  middle, 
then  turn  to  right  and  left,  or  even  return  again  (Fig. 
72,  a  and  h).  Other  uses  of  the  triple  motive  stair- 
case are  absurd ;  yet  one  often  finds  it  in  the  designs 
of  beginners,  tucked  away  on  one  side,  where,  con- 
sidering only  the  waste  of  space  entailed,  it  would  be 
far  more  sensible  to  use  a  simple  ''escalier  a  la 
Fran-Qaise,"  turning  always  in  the  same  direction 
{c,  Fig.  72).  When  such  a  staircase  occurs  on  one 
side  of  a  small  plan  it  is  not  at  all  necessary  to  balance 


196 


COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 


it  with  a  useless  repetition  on  the  other,  provided  it 
is  possible  to  see  both  ends  of  the  vestibule  from 
which  the  stairs  lead.     The  last  condition  is  impor- 
,  tant,  because  otherwise  the  pub- 

lic might  make  a  start  in  a  false 
direction. 

A  last  general  recommenda- 
tion is  that  the  lowest  step  of  a 
monumental  staircase  should  be 
set  back  from  the  entrance  to  the 
stair  hall  or  cage.  This  allows 
of  a  pause  on  the  level,  permit- 
ting the  public  to  appreciate  the 
decoration,  before  the  ascent  is 
begun. 

In  exterior  compositions,where 
an  avenue  (of  approach  to  a  city, 
perhaps,  or  in  an  analogous  case) 
occupies  the  axis  it  is  especially 
important  to  keep  the  entrance 
at  the  bottom  of  the  plan  entirely 
free  from  either  buildings  or 
decorative  motives.  Again,  and  it 
cannot  be  too  often  repeated,  the 
bottom  of  a  plan  should  be  open. 
In  many  large  plans  it  happens  that  two  main 
entrances  (from  front  and  rear)  must  be  arranged 
for.  In  a  large  school,  for  instance,  where  exposition 
rooms,  or  an  auditorium,  are  designed  with  entrance 
for  the  public,  it  may  well  occur  that  the  students' 
entrance  is  better  placed  on  the  opposite  side.    The 


Fig.  72. 


MAIN     ENTRANCES. 


197 


plan  then  becomes  an  X  in  form,  each  side  leading 
up  to  the  central  point.  M.  Henri  Deglane's  Grand 
Prix  (Fig.  73)  is  a  noted  solution  of  this  kind.  See 
also  those  of  M.  Bigot  and  M.  Toumaire  (Figs.  88 
and  89).  The  former  shows  an  approach  from  the 
sea  on  one  side,  and  from  the  town  on  the  other.  The 
whole  plan,  designed  for  a  naval  academy,  has  much 
character. 

We  must  also  speak  of  plans  having  two  main 
vertical  axes.  In  such  an  instance,  the  two  points 
of  interest  will  be  joined  by  a  main  horizontal  axis 
uniting  the  composition  (Fig. 
74).  As  already  said  in  our 
general  classification  (page 
83),  this  is  an  unusual  case, 
only  to  be  used  by  exception, 
where  an  entrance  exists  on 
the  right  and  an  exit  on  the 
left.  An  unsymmetrical  com- 
position naturally  throws 
the  principal  motive  out  of  the  middle  of  the  compo- 
sition. It  should  be  balanced  as  we  have  described 
on  page  47.  M.  Duquesne's  Grand  Prix  design  (Fig. 
75)  is  an  example  of  an  unsymmetrical  arrangement 
selected  on  account  of  the  ground  formation. 

Having  discussed  the  general  character  of  plans, 
their  aspect  and  main  forms  of  composition,  we  are 
ready  to  study  the  lesser  elements  and  decide  how 
they  may  best  unite  with  each  other  and  the  principal 
motive.    This  is  really  *'Le  Groupement  des  Ser- 


FiQ.  74. 


198  COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 

vices,"  forming  and  arranging  groups  of  different 
details. 

The  principal  motive  set  aside,  we  select  the  next 
important  elements  of  the  program,  remembering  that 
like  uses  define  the  general  placing.  Indeed,  the  first 
preoccupation  of  the  designer  is  to  sort  out  and  group 
different  species  of  rooms  (public,  private,  scholastic, 
the  dining  rooms,  kitchen,  and  accessories,  sleeping 
rooms  and  dormitories,  etc.),  rather  than  to  study  the 
definite  arrangement  of  each  room.  All  of  the  lesser 
groups  must  lead  from  the  main  ones  in  the  most 
practical  and  convenient  order.  Thus,  in  M.  Chaus- 
semiche's  plan  (Fig.  70),  a  large  court,  or  central 
space,  makes  a  point  from  which  one  can  find  the 
different  lecture  halls  and  class  rooms,  and  so  unifies 
a  special  major  group.  Nevertheless,  the  axis  is 
kept  open,  and  the  whole  leads  to  the  main  feature  of 
the  plan,  the  large  auditorium. 

A  number  of  similar  rooms  should  form  a  suite, 
and  the  more  monotonous  such  a  suite  the  better. 
We  see  this  also  in  M.  Chaussemiche 's  plan,  where 
the  small  class  rooms  or  laboratories  make  a  frame 
about  the  public  central  group.  The  disposition  is 
especially  good,  giving  excellent  light,  retirement 
and  separate  access  to  rooms  where  study  is  the 
motive.  The  beginner  must  remember  that  a  series 
of  quite  similar  rooms  is  never  to  be  divided  into  two 
barancing  groups.  As  in  the  plan  just  cited,  those 
on  the  right  must  follow  around  to  those  on  the  left. 
A  disregard  of  this  suggests  to  the  facetious  observer 
that  quaker  meeting  is  to  take  place,  the  men  being 


CIRCTJLATION.  199 

carefully  kept  on  one  side  and  the  women  on  the 
other. 

Last,  but  not  least   (indeed,  in  designing  some 
plans,  it  is  here  that  we  should  begin  our  construc- 
tion,  the  skeleton  of  our  figure), 
comes  the  question  of  *  *  circulation. ' '     ssssm 
(It  seems  best  to  adopt  the  French      w  wi  a>  «  j 
term,  as  * '  halls  "  or ' '  passages  do  not 
imply  all  that  is  meant.)     In  a  plan 
where  the  public  is  to  enter,  or  in  one 
where  a  crowd  may  have  to  pass  at  a    ____^ 


a 


given  moment,  do  not  be  afraid  of     *  ■  ■ 

ample  corridors.    Such  circulations 

should  pass  from  group  to  group 

without  interruption,  yet  not  cut  off     »  -,  ^  «, 

B   B   B  O 
part  of  a  group.    All  of  the  plans  ; 

here  cited  as  examples  are  excellent  f^ 

in  this  respect,  for  well  arranged  cir- 
culations are  an  essential  of  good 
planning ;  but  those  of  MM.  Chausse-     g~  g  a  g; 
miche,  Deglane  and  Tournaire(Figs.    ^a^^s^^^ 
70,  73  and  89)  will  repay  especial  > 

,     ,  Fig.  76. 

study. 

The  recommendation  not  to  break  any  circulation 
extends  even  to  the  introduction  of  passages  that  have 
only  an  indirect  use.  If  (Fig.  76)  a  suite  of  rooms 
runs  up  to  a  party  waU,  the  corridor  which  connects 
them  should  continue  around  the  fourth  unused  side 
of  the  court,  a  of  Fig.  76  shows  a  broken  circula- 
tion, b  an  unbroken  one. 

A  circulation  can  be  faultily  broken  by  one  of 


200 


COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 


another  class,  i.  e.,  the  passage  reserved  for  the  public 
might  be  severed  by  a  crossing  of  carriages  or  by  a 
service  hall  (from  kitchen  to  dining  room). 

Circulations  and  passages  are  among  the  most 
important  factors  in  tying  together  different  parts  of 
a  plan.  The  carrying,  or  tying  through  of  walls,  a 
requirement  of  sensible  planning,  indeed,  of  good 
construction,  is  another  means.  Also,  most  impor- 
tant is  the  preservation  of  the  axes  of  avenues,  open- 
ings, rooms,  or  other  ele- 
ments to  be  connected.  If 
all  of  these  methods  fail,  we 
may  ask  ourselves  whether 
the  building,  or  portion  of 
building,  is  not  out  of  place, 
whether  it  is  not  merely  an 
afterthought.  AmoAg  such 
mistaken  adjuncts,  elements 
that  can  never  be  success- 
fully tied  into  a  composition, 
is  the  small  porter's  lodge, 
lean-to,  at  the  entrance  of  a 
building.  These,  beginners  are  likely  to  add,  because 
a  clause  of  the  program  requires  some  provision  for 
the  service.    Fig.  77  shows  such  faulty  additions. 

In  general,  an  entrance  motive  should  be  slightly 
broken  out  in  advance  of  the  main  wall  of  the  fagade, 
when  it  would  in  consequence  rise  higher  in  its  decor- 
ation. The  limit  is  to  place  it  in  the  same  plane  with 
the  rest  of  the  facade.  It  should  never  be  behind 
the  plane  {a,  b  and  c  of  Fig.  78).     This  bringing 


Fig.  77. 


AIR  IN   A  PLAN. 


201 


^v'. 


/ 


/x 


forward  of  the  entrance  motive  should  not  be  great, 
however,  as  otherwise,  in  perspective,  the  effect  of 
the  elevation  is  diminished  {d,  Fig.  78).  In  saying 
that  the  entrance  motive  should  not  be  sunk  in  the 
wall,  no  reference  to  the  court  of  honor  is  intended. 
This  latter  is  of  excellent  effect 
in  perspective.  Students  only- 
need  keep  in  mind  that  the  cen- 
tral space  must  be  considerably 
wider  than  the  wings,  and  at 
most  not  set  back  more  than 
once  and  a  half  its  width  (Fig. 
78,  e  and/). 

* '  Air  in  a  plan ' '  is  the  quality 
presented  when  there  is  no  ap- 
parent crowding  of  the  ele- 
ments. All  plans  should  have 
as  much  *'air"  as  possible;  but 
those  situated  in  the  country 
or  on  unenclosed  ground  must 
be  especially  open.  This  is  ob- 
tained by  massing  the  courts 
and  open  spaces,  keeping  the 
arrangement  simple.  All  rooms 
and  passages  (except  vaults, 
etc.)  should  have  direct  open- 
ing on  large  courts  or  on  the  street.  We  are  too 
liable,  in  America,  to  content  ourselves  with  light 
shafts,  sky-lights,  or  other  half-way  contrivances, 
which  proper  study  on  the  part  of  the  architect 
might  obviate  without  loss  of  space. 


^^ 


Y//m 


„    Jos^cf. 


^^«((i(i 


i\ 


Fig.  78. 


202 


COMPOSITION"    IN    PLAN". 


Extra  doubling  of  passages  and  rows  of  rooms 
should  be  avoided.  No  wing  ought  to  have  more 
than  one  doubling  when  the  central  space  is  long  or 
cannot  be  well  lighted  from  the  end.  Thus  Figs.  79, 
a  and  b,  allow  of  direct  lighting  of 
the  passage  P,  but  c  should  not  be 
used.  Except  in  special  cases  the 
auditorium  or  lecture  hall  closed 
in  by  passages  on  both  sides  is 
to  be  avoided.  Never  add  an  extra 
passage  merely  for  symmetry. 
Rather  than  such  a  useless  and 
objectionable  balancing,  a  new 
scheme  should  be  adopted. 

In  order  to  show,  in  practical 
manner,  the  method  of  analyzing, 
or  rather  of  synthesizing  a  plan, 
we  shall  take  a  program  and  ex- 
plain the  making  of  the  sketch  for 
it.  The  subject  following  is  that 
of  a  problem  studied  by  the  stu- 
dents under  me  at  Cornell,  and  I 
can  thus  supply  the  different 
schemes  used  at  the  time  by  vari- 
ous men,  and  add  a  word  or  two 
of  criticism. 

Let  us  take  this  program,  first  in  the  confused  form 
in  which  one  might  find  such  a  list  of  requirements, 
and  then  sort  it  out.  I  remember  an  eminent  French 
architect  once  saying  that  a  poor  program  was  like 
*'a  basket  containing  flowers  and  fruit,"  cabbages. 


PLAN    OF    EIDING    CLUB.  203 

potatoes  and  roses,  all  thrown  together  pell  mell. 
The  designer  has  to  turn  the  whole  in  a  heap  and 
pick  out  the  different  varieties,  arranging  those  of  a 
kind  together,  before  he  can  proceed  with  the  cook- 
ing of  his  dinner  or  the  setting  and  decorating  of  his 
table. 

The  subject  of  our  program  is,  *'A  Riding  Club.*' 
A  number  of  wealthy  gentlemen  having  formed  a 
riding  club,  wish  to  erect  a  building  with  the  neces- 
sary equipment.  Provision  should  be  made  for 
instruction  and  exhibition  in  horsemanship  and  for 
stabling  members '  riding  horses. 

The  general  scheme  shall  consist  of  :— 
Stables  for  160  horses. 

A  large  arena  or  ring  for  riding  lessons  and  exhi- 
bitions. 

A  large  entrance  court,  or  court  of  honor,  with 
arrangements  for  mounting  or  trying  horses  before 
taking  them  out. 

A  separate  carriage  house,  for  a  limited  number 
of  carriages;  also  quarters  with  dining  room  and 
kitchen,  for  the  attendants,  while  an  office  may  be 
placed  with  the  latter  group  if  it  be  near  the  entrance. 
The  lot  is  300  feet  square.  The  principal  entrance 
shall  be  on  a  broad  avenue  with  small  streets  on  the 
other  three  sides  of  the  lot. 

The  stables  shall  connect  directly  with  the  court 
and  arena.  They  shall  have  necessary  adjuncts, 
such  as  harness  rooms,  storage  rooms,  hay  lofts  and 
rooms  for  the  grooms.  The  carriage  house  shall 
also  be  in  direct  communication  with  the  court. 


204  COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 

The  arena  may  be  rectangular  in  form  and  should 
have  16,000  square  feet  of  floor  area.  A  gallery  for 
spectators  should  be  provided;  also,  near  the  en- 
trance two  groups,  each  of  twenty  dressing  rooms 
(for  men  and  women),  with  adequate  bathing  facili- 
ties. A  central  reception  room  shall  be  added,  as 
well  as  a  committee  room  and  offices.  The  arena 
shall  have  an  exit  for  horses  to  the  court. 

The  stables  may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  one 
for  the  horses  belonging  to  the  club  proper  and  the 
other  for  those  belonging  to  the  members.  Service 
courts  are  necessary  to  the  stables. 

The  scales  of  the  drawings  required  will  not  be  of 
interest  to  us  at  present. 

In  order  to  correct  or  sort  out  the  program,  the 
designer  must  necessarily  have  some  idea  of  what 
are  the  requirements  of  a  riding  club.  He  must, 
however,  be  careful  to  permeate  himself  with  the 
spirit  of  the  program ;  to  find  out  what  the  man  who 
wrote  it  really  meant;  to  add  nothing  to,  or  take 
nothing  from  the  first  writing,  no  matter  in  what 
changes  of  order  of  expression  he  may  see  fit  to 
indulge.  The  most  important  items  should  come 
first,  and  so,  going  on  down  the  scale,  he  would  arrive 
at  something  like  the  following : 

A  Riding  Club. 
A  number  of  wealthy  gentlemen  having  formed  a 
riding  club,  wish  to  erect  a  building,  with  the  neces- 
sary equipment.  Provision  should  be  made  for  in- 
struction and  exhibition  in  horsemanship  and  for 
stabling  members'  horses. 


A    RIDING    CLUB.  205 

The  general  scheme  shall  consist  of : 

1.  A  large  entrance  court,  or  court  of  honor,  with 
arrangements  for  mounting  or  trying  horses  before 
taking  them  out. 

2.  A  large  arena  or  ring  for  riding  lessons  and 
exhibitions,  with  exit  for  horses  to  the  court.  The 
arena  may  be  rectangular  in  form,  and  should  have 
about  16,000  square  feet  of  floor  area.  A  gallery  for 
spectators  should  be  provided;  also,  near  the  en- 
trance two  groups,  each  of  twenty  dressing  rooms 
(for  men  and  women),  with  adequate  bathing  facili- 
ties. A  central  reception  room  shall  be  added,  as 
well  as  a  committee  room  and  offices. 

3.  Stables  (for  160  horses),  opening  into  both 
court  and  arena,  with  necessary  adjuncts,  such  as 
harness  rooms,  storage  rooms,  hay  lofts  and  rooms 
for  the  grooms. 

The  stables  may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  one 
for  the  horses  belonging  to  the  club  proper  and  the 
other  for  those  belonging  to  the  members.  Service 
courts  are  necessary  to  the  stables. 

4  and  5.  A  separate  carriage  house  in  direct  com- 
munication with  the  court  shall  be  provided  for  a 
limited  number  of  carriages;  also,  quarters  with 
dining  room  and  kitchen  for  the  attendants,  while 
an  office  may  be  placed  with  the  latter  group,  if  it  be 
near  the  entrance. 

The  lot  is  300  feet  square. 

The  principal  entrance  shall  be  on  a  broad  avenue, 
with  small  streets  on  the  other  three  sides  of  the 
lot. 


206  COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 

Having  put  our  program  in  order  (an  unnecessary 
preliminary  when  it  has  been  properly  written),  the 
next  duty  of  the  architect  is  to  impress  himself  deeply 
with  the  title.  From  this  title  he  should  draw  his 
realization  of  the  character  of  the  design. 

'*A  Eiding  Club."  It  is  then  primarily  for  the 
purpose  of  riding,  and  must  show  that  in  all  its  ex- 
l^ressions  and  appurtenances.  But  more  than  this, 
it  is  also  a  club,  not  a  public,  but  a  private  enterprise, 
and  the  private  enterprise  of  cultured,  of  wealthy 
persons.  Here  is  a  second  set  of  characteristics 
which  must  show  in  the  de'feign.  Nothing  must  be 
stinted,  and  all  refined.  No  show  for  advertisement, 
no  vulgarity,  and  yet  perfect,  even  luxurious  ap- 
pointments. 

Then  comes  a  reading  of  the  descriptive  para- 
graph, where  these  indications  of  character  are 
strengthened.  In  this  paragraph  the  practical  aims 
of  the  club  are  also  set  forth :  instruction,  exhibitions 
of  the  result,  and  arrangements  for  future  exercise. 
The  plan  must  further  these  three  needs.  For  the 
first,  the  club  members  must  have  every  convenience ; 
for  the  second  not  only  the  members,  but  a  public  of 
visitors  must  be  received ;  for  the  third  the  members 
must  find  a  practical  disposition  of  the  service,  allow- 
ing prompt  attention.  We  have  mentioned  no  cost, 
but  when  such  a  clause  appears  it  should  be  rig- 
orously adhered  to,  and  although  it  ought  not  to 
influence  the  character,  it  should  decidedly  influ- 
ence the  design  in  choice  of  kind  of  construction, 
etc. 


A    RIDING    CLUB.  207 

Let  US  now  take  up  the  items  of  the  program :  here 
it  may  be  well  to  say  that  a  program  should  be  read 
over  several  times,  carefully  thought  out,  and  all 
possible  dispositions  considered,  before  pencil  is  put 
to  paper.  First  of  all  comes  a  court  of  honor.  It 
must  be  first  (in  the  case  of  a  symmetrical  composi- 
tion, on  the  axis),  because  of  its  qualities,  expressed 
in  the  program  by  the  words  court  of  honor  or  en- 
trance court.  Then  there  is  the  arena,  and  that  is 
evidently  the  principal  point  of  the  program,  the 
climax.  So  it  will  go  at  the  back,  or  at  least  in  the 
important  part  of  the  plan ;  this  too,  on  the  axis,  if  a 
symmetrical  composition  is  used.  The  stables  can  be 
separated  into  two  groups  so  they  would  easily  bal- 
ance ;  and  we  have  two  smaller  groups,  4  and  5,  which 
can  also  balance.  Therefore,  there  is  no  reason  for 
adopting  an  unsymmetrical  composition ;  and  we  may 
discard  that  from  the  list  of  possibilities. 

Let  us  return  to  our  court.  The  clauses  which  in- 
sist on  the  arena,  stables  and  carriage  house  opening 
directly  from  the  court,  imply  that,  in  a  measure  it  is 
to  be  a  center  of  radiation.  It  must  be  conveniently 
arranged  for  the  mounting  and  trying  of  horses.  It 
must  also  be  so  disposed,  with  regard  to  the  arena, 
that  the  members,  and  especially  visitors,  can  reach 
the  arena  without  experiencing  discomfort  or  danger, 
proceeding  from  the  same  mounting  and  trying. 
Therefore,  the  approach  along  the  axis  to  the  arena 
must  be  clear  and  more  or  less  protected,  while  the 
exits  for  the  horses,  to  the  court  and  streets,  from  the 
arena  and  stables,  ought  not  to  interfere  with,  the  cen- 


208  COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 

tral  walk.  Inasmucli  as  visitors  may  arrive  in  car- 
riages, they  should  be  able  to  drive  up  to  the  arena 
without  interfering  with  the  other  uses  of  the  court. 

The  arena  may  well  be  long  rather  than  square,  giv- 
ing in  the  hippodrome  form  even  a  better  sweep  than 
that  of  the  circular  ring.  Either  shape,  however,  is 
permissible.  The  reception  and  committee  rooms, 
with  the  gallery  staircase,  should  be  centrally  and 
conspicuously  placed  at  the  entrance  to  the  arena 
building,  that  the  public  shall  need  no  directions. 
Dressing  and  bath  rooms  are  more  private ;  being  in 
two  separate  groups  they  may  be  relegated  to  right 
and  left.  The  offices,  naturally,  should  be  in  full  view 
at  the  entrance. 

The  stables  must  fulfil  a  two-fold  requirement :  of 
accessibility  to  the  arena  and  to  the  court.  The  espe- 
cial requisites  of  stables  will  be  studied  in  the  sixth 
part  of  this  volume.  As  to  the  carriage  house  and 
attendants'  building— although  easy  to  reach,  they 
should  not  interfere  with  the  effect  of  the  court. 

We  may  now  begin  to  formulate  definite  schemes 
for  our  plans,  deciding  roughly  what  relative  sizes  the 
different  buildings  must  eventually  have.  The  ar- 
rangement that  immediately  occurs  to  us  is  A  of  Fig. 
80.  Two  exits  from  the  arena  to  the  court  would  open 
into  a  circular  drive,  with  space  on  the  outer  sides, 
which  would  allow  room  for  the  mounting  of  horses. 
The  court  should  be  made  as  large  as  possible.  B 
(Fig.  80)  might  be  our  second  idea;  C,  D,  E  and  F 
others.  In  A  the  dressing  and  bath  rooms,  etc.,  would 
make  a  doubling  in  front  of  the  arena,  difficult  of 


A    BIDING    CLUB. 


209 


treatment  in  fagade.  In  D  and  F  the 
axis  of  the  stables  and  stable  courts 
would  probably  correspond  to  that  of 
the  ring  proper,  the  dressing  rooms, 
etc.,  projecting  in  front.  This  has  the 
inconvenience  of  diminishing  the  court 
in  width  just  where  it  should  be  broad- 
est. In  E  the  composition  is  an 
attractive  one,  but  the  service  courts 
would  be  narrow,  and  yet  take  up  much 
space  on  account  of  their  length.  This 
diminishes  the  court  of  honor. 

Once  having  projected  all  the 
schemes  we  can  think  of,  we  should 
leave  our  work  for  a  short  time,  and 
then,  returning  to  it  fresh,  weigh  care- 
fully the  merits  and  demerits  of  each 
plan,  finally  selecting  the  best.  This 
we  should  draw  to  scale,  using  appro- 
priate indication  to  assure  ourselves 
that  no  flaws  exist.  With  the  plans  we 
shall  have  imagined  our  elevations  and 
sections.  These  we  also  draw  out ;  and 
if  serious  difficulties  occur,  it  might  be 
necessary  to  go  back  to  a  discarded 
plan.  It  often  happens  that  the  final 
scheme  selected  is  that  of  our  first 
idea ;  so  here,  perhaps,  the  most  direct 
arrangement  is  A.  Its  stables,  how- 
ever will  always  mask  the  facade  of 
the  arena,  whereas  B,  C,  D,  E,  and  F 
leave  the  latter  quite  clear. 
15 


B 

9 

: ! 

s 

c 

1 
! 

1 

a c 

1 

— 

(71  '  m 

L 

i 
i — -i- 


I 

I 


im 


LU! 


13 


a  court  e  camajti 
h  arena  f  atUnett 
ce  ttaiksqg  terneti 

FlQ.  80. 


210  COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 

Further  study  of  the  sketch  means  a  careful  re- 
drawing of  the  whole,  or  at  least  of  parts,  on  succes- 
sive pieces  of  tracing  paper— five,  ten,  twenty  times, 
if  need  be.  We  begin  with  masses  and  end  by  going 
into  the  smallest  details ;  first  at  a  small  scale,  then  at 
double.  Finally  come  the  exhibition  or  working 
drawings— but  we  are  going  beyond  our  province. 


CHAPTER  II. 


Indication. 

In  indication  of  plan,  the  different  elements  may  be 
divided  into  two  main  groups:  points  and  walls,  or 
''poche"  and  ''mosaic.'* 

An  axiom  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  points  is  that  breaks 
which  occur  in  one  must  be 
found  of  equal  depth  in  anoth- 
er opposite.  Thus  the  sil- 
houette a,  h,  c,  d,  of  B  (Fig. 
81)  should  correspond  to  the 
silhouette  a',  h',  c',  d'.  The  axis 
of  the  opening  must  be  that  of 
all  minor  breaks.  There  are 
exceptions  to  this,  of  course. 
If  the  designer  realizes  in  im- 
agination the  construction  and 
decoration  to  be  expressed,  he 
will  know  when  the  breaks  on 
one  side  would  interpret  a 
flat  wall  space  above  the 
springing  of  the  arches,  and 
so  correspond  to  a  flat  sur- 
face on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  opening  or  passage,  C 
(Fig.  81). 

211 


Fig.  81. 


212  COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 

The  power  of  seeing  a  completed  figure  in  the 
mind's  eye  is  acquired  by  a  thorough  training  in  des- 
criptive geometry.  It  is  more  or  less  natural  to  some, 
but  through  practice  any  one  can  finally  attain  fa- 
cility, provided  he  never  draws  a  silhouette  in  plan 
without  knowing  what  it  means. 

And  now  we  must  find  out  exactly  what  is  meant  by 
''axes"  in  a  plan.  The  broad  term  is  used  to  desig- 
nate great  constructive  lines  of  symmetry  on  which 
the  whole  is  built,  the  skeleton  of  the  plan.  But  in  a 
lesser  way,  what  is  an  axis,  and  what  are  the  limita- 
tions which  may  be  applied  to  its  use? 

I  remember  an  ''ancien"  of  the  Ecole  once  remark- 
ing epigrammatically  that  an  axis  implied  an  open- 
ing, that  the  term  "axis  of  a  point"  meant  nothing. 
And  this  is  true,  because  the  need  of  an  axis  is  created 
by  a  vista,  i.  e.,  by  the  eye's  looking  through  or  down 
an  opening,  a  frame,  or  at  a  motive  of  decoration. 
Then  a  desire  to  see  one  side  like  the  other  is  always 
sensible.  There  is  also  a  constructional  need  of  sym- 
metry when  the  width  of  an  arch  ring  carries  one  set 
of  mouldings  over  to  the  other  (as  just  seen  in  A  and 
B  of  Fig.  81).  But  neither  of  these  reasons  exists  in 
the  case  of  a  point.  The  eye  cannot  see  through  solid 
stone  and  no  arch  goes  from  one  side  to  the  other. 
Therefore,  there  is  no  inherent  reason  why  one  side 
of  a  point  or  wall,  or  any  piece  of  poche,  should  be 
like  the  other  side.  The  axis  of  symmetry  of  a  point 
is,  in  essence,  a  meaningless  term. 

What  then  is  the  origin  of  the  form  of  words,  *'a 
symmetrical  point, ' '  and  why  should  we  also,  by  way 


INDICATION.  213 

of  paradox,  speak  of  ''placing  the  axes"  of  such 
points?  As  a  result  of  a  repeated  opening  or  motive, 
the  two  sides  of  the  intermediate  point,  having  a  like 
use,  have  a  like  form.  The  result  is  a  symmetrical 
point;  but  it  is  only  a  result  or  happening.  Let  us 
remember  that  the  silhouette  of  a  piece  of  poche  de- 
pends upon  the  motive  which  is  framed  in,  and  that 
when  the  two  motives  on  each  side  of  the  poche  are 
unlike,  the  two  sides  of  the  point  will  be  different. 
In  practice,  if  a  wall  is  much  cut  into  on  one  side,  for 
the  sake  of  good  construction,  and  therefore  of  good 
planning,  it  is  better  to  keep  it  quite  plain  on  the 
other. 

The  study  of  the  silhouette  of  poche  is  not  all  that 
an  architect  has  to  think  about.  Even  more  important 
is  the  question  of  its  size  or  weight.  The  different 
walls  and  points  of  a  large  plan  are  by  no  means  the 
same  size.  A  glance  at  one  of  the  plans  in  the  fore- 
going pages  shows  this.  Here  by  half  closing  our 
eyes,  or  by  putting  them  slightly  out  of  focus,  we 
become  conscious  of  interior  suites  of  heavier  walls. 
These  predominant  lines  are  ''interior  silhouettes" 
and  should  make  a  closed  line ;  the  eye  should  be  able 
to  follow  such  a  line,  back  to  the  starting  point, 
through  the  different  convolutions  to  which  it  may  be 
subjected.  This  is  as  true  as  that  each  room  should 
be  closed ;  the  reason  will  be  apparent  when  we  have 
studied  the  need  for  varying  thickness  in  walls. 

There  are  four  conditions  to  which  walls,  as  regards 
their  weight,  must  conform. 

1.  The  higher  the  wall,  the  thicker. 


214  COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 

2.  The  larger  the  space  enclosed,  the  thicker  the 
wall. 

3.  When  a  lateral  pressure  occurs,  the  wall  or  point 
must  be  thicker  and  heavier  in  the  line  of  the  thrust 
and  in  proportion  to  it. 

4.  The  material  of  which  a  wall  or  point  is  con- 
structed will  determine  the  class  to  which  it  belongs, 
and  thus  govern  its  weight. 

In  independent  points,  the  kind  of  construction 
which  unites  them  overhead  will  determine  their 
spacing,  and  thus,  indirectly,  as  seen  in  the  second 
condition,  their  size. 

As  the  more  important  rooms  and  halls  of  a  plan 
are  necessarily  larger  and  usually  higher,  they  are 
marked  in  a  plan  by  heavier  walls.  Hence  the  in- 
terior silhouettes  just  alluded  to.  These  suites  of 
heavier  walls  would  only  be  interrupted  by  an  intro- 
duction of  new  material,  an  unusual  occurrence. 

The  better  the  grouping  of  a  plan,  the  more  are 
different  interior  silhouettes  brought  together  into 
one  suite  and  simplified.  From  this  we  realize  a 
quality  of  impression,  to  be  looked  for  in  designs. 

The  facade  walls  are  usually  heavier  than  the  less 
important  interior  walls  and  give  a  closed  exterior  sil- 
houette. 

That  the  shape  and  size  of  points  should  be  ma- 
terially altered  by  the  introduction  of  arches  and 
vaulting  is  an  ABC  of  architecture.  Nearly  every 
student  of  architecture,  if  he  has  not  read  Ruskin,  has 
at  least  been  preached  at  by  the  lover  of  Gothic.  In 
consequence,  if  he  is  endowed  with  even  slight  desire 


INDICATION.  215 

to  learn  something  more  than  what  lies  on  the  surface, 
he  has  gone  to  Mr.  Moore's  excellent  work  on  the 
Gothic  construction  and  has  perhaps  made  some  study 
of  Viollet  le  Due  and  the  actual  buildings.  If  he  has 
thus  grasped  the  underlying  principles  of  Gothic  he 
will  be  able  to  use  in  a  logical  manner  not  merely 
ogives  and  groined  vaults,  but  any  vault.  He  will 
have  learned  that  Gothic  architects  were  not  merely 
builders  of  pointed  arches,  but  rather  master  thinkers, 
and  he  will  try  to  follow  in  their  footsteps.  When, 
for  the  sake  of  character,  adaptability,  ease  of  con- 
struction, unity  of  decoration,  style,  or  any  other  well 
founded  reason,  he  chooses  to  introduce  a  barrel  vault 
into  his  modem  work,  he  will  indicate  heavy  walls  on 
the  sides  and  a  lighter,  or  even  none  at  the  end ;  if  a 
cloister  vault,  heavy  walls  on  all  four  sides ;  a  dome 
without  penetrations,  again  a  wall  of  uniform  thick- 
ness ;  a  groined  vault,  points  resisting  in  the  direction 
of  the  diagonals,  or  at  least  points  which,  taken  to- 
gether, will  sum  up  such  a  resistance ;  a  barrel,  clois- 
ter or  dome  with  penetrations,  points  which  in  their 
length  make  up  for  the  gathering  of  the  thrusts.  In 
an  arcade  the  points  between  arches,  where  thrusts 
annul  each  other,  would  be  slight  in  comparison  to  the 
end  point,  which  acts  as  buttress.  Hence  he  would 
never  end  an  arcade  with  an  isolated  column  but 
would  always  engage  the  column  in  a  pier. 

A  barrel  vault  with,  or,  even  better,  without  pene- 
trations, is  especially  appropriate  for  a  gallery  or 
straight  staircase,  or  for  a  long  hall  with  entrance  at 
one  end.    The  vertical  half  circle  at  the  end  offers  an 


216 


COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 


especially  good  ground  for  decorations  to  which  the 
whole  arrangement  of  the  vault  and  hall  leads. 

A  cloister  vault  is  well  adapted  to  a  room  or  to  an 
''escalier  a  la  FranQaise,"  but  looks  lower  than  does 
a  ground  vault  or  vault  with  penetrations.  Domes 
without  penetrations  have  a  tendency  to  look  bare,  and 
are  difficult  to  decorate. 

Coming  back  to  our  fourth  condition:  as  regards 
size  of  points,  the  difference  between  slight  partitions 
or  framework,  brick  and  stone  should  be  evident. 

But  between  any  of  the  for- 
mer and  an  indication  of 
iron  construction  even 
greater  difference  should 
exist.  All  this  must  be  felt 
in  the  plan  as  much  as  in 
elevation.  To  give  such  in- 
dication correctly  the  stu- 
dent must  acquaint  himself  with  the  dimensions  of 
each  material  and  depict  an  honest  use. 

Having  reviewed  the  general  laws  which  may  be 
said  to  govern  indication  of  poche,  let  us  take  up  sev- 
eral cases  and  add  a  few  suggestions  as  to  the  means 
of  giving  scale. 

First,  two  parallel  walls  near  together  should  not 
usually,  unless  both  as  thin  as  possible,  be  of  the  same 
thickness.  In  Fig.  82  a  and  h  would  be  unlike,  the 
floor  beams  carrying  from  c  to  &  and  from  h  to  d  dis- 
pensing with  the  support  of  a.  It  is  only  in  six-inch 
framework  that  the  walls  are  of  uniform  thickness. 
One  can  a  priori  decide  that  there  is  probably  a  fault 


INDICATION.  217 

somewhere,  when  a  plan  presents  the  monotonous 
aspect  induced  by  uniform  weight  of  walls. 

Second,  for  the  sake  of  good  construction,  all  walls 
ought  to  go  down,  at  least  through  arched  points,  to 
the  foundations.  Only  thin  partitions  should  be  sup- 
ported on  floors  or  by  beams  from  point  to  point.  It 
is  perfectly  evident  that  heavy  walls  can  be  carried 
across  wide  openings,  but  this  is  bad  architecture. 
On  the  one  hand  is  the  alternative  of  a  high  steel  beam. 
This  is  both  expensive  and  heavy,  unsightly  from  be- 
low, tends  to  sag  into  an  ugly  curve,  to  vibrate  more 
or  less  and  perhaps  crack  the  decoration.  Moreover, 
if  it  show  the  immense  weight  above 
(as  in  a  fagade)  the  beholder  must  ^^^^^j. 
unconsciously  fear  for  its  security,      /i^^i^^i\ 

and  a  most  inartistic  effect  will  re-    j||'     _  1 JIl 

suit.  On  the  other  hand,  a  little  more     ff"       \ ^ 

serious  study  is  necessary  to  arrange 
the  plan  so  that  the  wall  may  be  sup- 
ported on  solid  arching  or  be  built  up  from  the 
ground. 

A  possible  fault  of  this  kind  is  that  exhibited  when 
the  facade  wall  of  an  upper  story  is  built  across  above 
the  end  of  a  room  having  a  circular  extension,  without 
an  arch  to  support  it  (Fig.  83).  Naturally,  if  an  arch 
is  used  the  diameter  of  the  circular  plan  cannot  be 
very  great.  As  a  rule,  all  holes,  windows,  doors,  bays, 
etc.,  should  be  kept  one  above  the  other;  thus  the 
points  will  also  be  over  each  other. 

Another  arrangement  that  is  good  or  bad  for  con- 
structive reasons  is  the  Palladian  motive.  This  should 


218 


COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 


only  be  used  between  piers  or  when  slightly  set  back 
from  a  fa-Qade  (Fig.  84).  The  suggestion  of  a  thrust 
from  the  arch  needs  these  lateral  buttresses  to  make 
it  seem  secure.  Palladio  and  the  old  Italians  always 
used  it  thus,  and  modem  students  cannot  do  better 

J than  imitate  their  work  as 

pitiwwuum'i.Twww.wwww;^^    shown  in  the  Villa  Medici  of 

Eome. 

As  said  under  "Optical 
Effects,"  all  reentrant  cir- 
cles in  plan  should  have  their 
centers  set  back.  AVhen  in- 
dicating columns  in  plan 
keep  in  mind  that  those  of 
the  same  height  would  have 
approximately  the  same  di- 
ameter. Columns  may  be 
either  engaged  from  one- 
third  to  one-quarter  or 
disengaged,  providing  the 
distance  from  the  pier  to  the 
column  is  not  equal  to  the  lat- 
They  should  never  be  tangent  or 
The  grouping  together  of  four  col- 


FlG.  84. 


ter's  diameter, 
almost  tangent, 
umns,  sometimes  seen  in  German  plans,  is  not  of- 
ten successful.  A  superfluity  of  columns  is  to  be 
avoided.  This  superfluity  can  be  detected  in  impres- 
sion by  the  plan  looking  like  a  pool  table  full  of  bil- 
liard balls.  In  execution  such  prodigality  gives  to 
the  confused  beholder  the  sensation  of  being  in  an 
unordered  forest  of  tree  trunks.    It  is  well  to  place  a 


INDICATION.  219 

corresponding  pilaster  beliind  a  disengaged  column 
(Fig.  85)  to  hold  up  the  inner  end  of  the  entablature 
(at  a).  One  may  deduce  a  rule  from  this:  that  an 
entablature  should  always  have  a  support  at  its  end 
or  turning. 

We  have  not  yet  spoken  of  the  dancing  of  stairs, 
although  it  is  a  subject  that  might  have  been  included 


Fig.  85. 


in  earlier  chapters.  In  America,  a  comer  in  a  stair- 
case is  usually  turned  by  brutally  running  each  step 
to  the  center;  and  later  on,  when  the  staircase  is 
found  dangerous,  the  architect  contents  himself  with 


220 


COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 


condemning  all  winding  staircases.  Such  turns,  how- 
ever, would  be  perfectly  easy  and  safe  if  properly 
made,  the  principle  being  to  progressively  increase 
and  then  decrease  the  widths  of  the  steps  measured  on 
an  outer  circle.  Thus  persons  going  up  or  down  are 
not  confronted  with  a  sudden  change  in  length  of  the 
step  necessary,  and  unconsciously  accommodate  them- 
selves. Other  advantages  of  dancing  the  steps  are 
that  the  hand-rail  does  not  follow  a  broken  curve,  and 
that,  inasmuch  as  the  change  of  width  is  begun  before 
reaching  the  turn,  reduced  portions  of  the  steps  at  the 
turn  are  actually  broader,  while  broader  portions  are 
narrower.  M.  Pillet  in  his  "Stereotomie"  gives  the 
two  best  mechanical  methods  for  dancing  steps,  but  it 
seems  even  better  to  do  this  by  eye.  Just  as  a  hand- 
made curve  is  always  superior  to  a 
constructed  curve  so  will  the  free 
dancing  be  to  the  more  mathemati- 
cal. As  in  Fig.  86  we  take  our  line 
of  construction  a,  h,  c  about  twenty 
inches  from  the  hand-rail  and,  real- 
izing that  a  step  in  the  axis  R  would 
be  symmetrically  affected,  are  able  to  use  it  as  a  start- 
ing point.  We  next  lay  off  our  treads  at  f,  e,  d,  c,  b, 
a  and  f,  g,  h,  i,  j,  k,  a  and  k  being  the  first  steps  we 
have  decided  to  make  straight.  The  dancing  must 
not  be  carried  too  far,  as  the  steps  would  become 
too  much  inclined  to  the  direction  of  passage. 
Through  a  point  taken  on  a  wider  circle,  R,  S 
(center  o),  we  draw  our  first  corrected  step,  in 
such   a   way   that   a',   h'   will   be   slightly   longer 


Fig.  86. 


INDICATION. 


221 


till  R  is  reached,  and  then  decrease  progressively. 
The  architect  must  try  for  a  gradual  alteration  of 
direction  which  presents  no  sudden  change,  and  he 
re-corrects  the  lines  aa',  hh',  cc' ,  etc.,  just  as  he 
would  the  breaks  in  a  free-hand  curve. 

In  order  to  give  scale  to  points,  we  have  recourse  to 
the  laws  enumerated  in  Part  II.  An  element  more  or 
less  definite  in  deciding  the  scale  of  a  plan,  where  a 
truss  construction  is  used  for  the  roofing,  etc.,  is  the 
spacing  of  the  points  themselves.  The  ordinary  dis- 
tances between  axes  of  successive 
points  of  poche  in  a  wall  which  is  to 
support  trusses,  would  be  from 
twelve  to  fifteen  feet.  In  large  truss- 
es this  is  increased. 

Another  thing  to  remember  in  plan- 
ning the  interior  decoration  of  a  room 
is  that  single  45°  motives  in  the  cor- 
ner {A,  Fig.  87)  will  always  give  less 
scale  than  two  motives  (such  as  B  of 
the  same  figure).  It  is  quite  difficult 
to  obtain  much  scale  with  a  45°  motive. 
The  only  successful  way  is  to  introduce  sub-elements, 
decorative  columns,  statues,  etc.,  and  run  the  risk  of 
becoming  complicated  and  perhaps  of  being,  even 
then,  unable  to  prevent  these  elements  from  seeming 
additions  in  miniature,  themselves  out  of  scale. 

In  modem  planning,  the  best  example  of  carefully 
studied  points  and  arrangement  of  a  difficult  disposi- 
tion of  axes,  brought  together  and  made  clear,  is  a 
plan  already  mentioned,  M.  Pascal's  Grand  Prix  (Fig. 


Fig.  87. 


222 


COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 


23).  This  design  is  for  three  distinct  but  communi- 
cating private  hotels,  belonging  to  the  same  family, 
and  is  for  an  irregular  piece  of  ground. 

Indication  op  Mosaic. 

The  mosaic  of  a  plan  (we  are  now  speaking  of  exhi- 
bition work)  is  intended  to  define  and  characterize 
qualities  already  existent  in  the  poche;  to  intensify 
the  architect's  interpretation  of  the  program,  and  to 
aid  in  interpreting  his  own  ideas.  This  being  the 
case,  it  hardly  seems  a  mistake  to  allow  the  introduc- 
tion of  mosaic  in  competition  drawings,  despite  con- 
trary opinion.  What  is  aimed  at  in  competitive  work 
is  a  comparison  of  the  ideas  of  different  architects, 
more  than  a  test  of  their  ability.  It  has  been  urged 
against  the  rendering  and  mosaicing  of  such  work  that 
these ' '  tricks ' '  catch  the  eye  and  make  a  poor  plan  look 
better  than  its  neighbors.  But  such  assertions  must 
have  been  made  by  men  who  did  not  understand  the 
reading  of  mosaic.  In  reality,  unless  the  rendering 
of  a  plan  does  carry  out  the  thought  of  which  the 
poche  is  the  expression,  if  it  is  put  in  at  random,  it 
would  much  better  be  altogether  omitted.  If  the 
labels  on  the  bottles  in  an  apothecary's  shop  are 
mixed,  more  harm  is  likely  to  ensue  than  if  the  dif- 
ferent poisons  were  left  unlabeled.  At  least,  then,  the 
skilled  chemist  would  not  be  led  to  use  prussic  acid 
for  distilled  water. 

From  this  we  may  deduce  that  mosaic  must,  above 
all,  be  characteristic.  Since  it  is  to  act  as  a  label  only, 
it  must  never  be  dark  enough  to  detract  from  the 


INDICATION    OF    MOSAIC.  223 

poche,  to  clutter  up  the  plan.  Interior  mosaic  may  be 
made  somewhat  more  intricate,  and  thus  on  the  whole 
darker  than  exterior  mosaic,  but  should  be  done  with 
a  finer  line.  Moreover,  when  the  design  contains  many 
repeated  lines,  these  should  be  in  a  lighter  ink.  Light 
washes  may  be  used  to  bring  out  the  design  of  interior 
work  or  to  express  different  kinds  of  mosaic,  furni- 
ture, etc.,  but  the  lighter  and  more  monochrome  such 
washes,  the  better.  In  the  rendering  of  exteriors,  it 
is  also  true  that  dark  tones  and  varied  colors  are  bad. 
The  poche  should  shine  out  in  the  plan,  should  pre- 
dominate and  make  the  first  impression. 

For  this  reason  a  base  line  or  ''ligne  de  retraite'* 
of  light  ink  is  drawn  around  all  the  poche,  about  a 
millimeter  from  it  in  interior  work  and  on  the  exterior 
as  much  as  two  millimeters.  These  distances,  how- 
ever, vary  with  the  scale  of  the  plan.  No  washes  or 
mosaic  should  cross  this  base  line.  Observance  of 
this  will  leave  the  poche  free  and  give  brilliancy. 
Usually  a  very  light  gray  wash  is  put  all  over  the  ex- 
terior of  a  plan,  in  order  to  leave  the  buildings  light 
and  give  them  prominence.  This  wash  should  be 
little  more  than  dirty  water.  All  the  washes  of  a  plan 
are  usually  graded  from  top  to  bottom.  The  shadows 
are  cast  from  the  upper  left-hand  comer.  The  latter 
are  best  left  out,  unless  there  is  considerable  exterior 
work,  gardening  and  terracing,  which  need  explana- 
tion. Some  years  ago  the  custom  of  grading  a  tone 
over  staircases  prevailed,  but  this  usually  makes  a 
spot  which  attracts  undue  attention,  and  may  be  dis- 
pensed with. 


224  COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 

As  to  optical  illusions,  resulting  from  the  introduc- 
tion of  mosaic  (see  also  the  chapter  on  Optical  Ef- 
fects, page  143),  a  space  (room,  hall  or  gallery,  etc.), 
left  quite  white,  naturally  attracts  more  attention  and 
appears  larger  than  the  same  space  made  gray  by 
wash.  A  design  that  has  no  definite  personal  divi- 
sions in  its  composition  but  gives  an  even  gray  tone 
and  runs  to  the  base  line  makes  a  space  count  for  its 
full  size;  this  is  true,  too,  of  a  design  that  grades 
evenly  from  gray  at  the  base  line  to  light  or  white  in 
the  middle.  On  the  contrary,  if  there  are  introduced 
distinctive  divisions,  dark  in  the  middle,  with  a  de- 
cided white  band  between  center  design  and  poche, 
or  a  greater  number  of  dissimilar  dark  and  light 
bands,  the  whole  space  seems  reduced. 

Contrasts  will  always  count;  that  is,  in  a  light 
plan  the  principal  motive  should  be  treated  with  a 
darker  design,  or,  if  the  whole  be  covered  with  lines, 
a  darker  or  very  light,  perhaps  quite  white,  treatment 
will  be  proper  for  the  climax.  The  climax  must  have 
the  richest  or  most  interesting  mosaic.  In  a  white 
treatment  this  can  be  attained  by  arranging  a  bril- 
liant and  sparkling  composition,  as  a  border  or 
fringe,  gray  at  the  base  line,  grading  to  white. 

If  a  repetition  of  parallel  lines  or  small  spaces,  etc., 
is  used,  the  whole  must  be  kept  absolutely  even  and 
regular,  for  the  slightest  irregularity  in  such  a  tone 
attracts  attention;  a  rubber  is  useful  in  equalizing 
faulty  portions.  The  use  of  a  light  gray  wash  is 
often  better  than  such  pen-work  imitation  of  the  en- 
graver. 


INDICATION    OF    MOSAIC.  225 

We  may  distinguish  three  distinct  kinds  of  interior 
mosaic : 

(1)  that  which  shows  the  flooring  and  is  projected 
up; 

(2)  that  which  shows  objects  in  the  plan,  furniture, 
etc.,  and  is  projected  up; 

(3)  that  which  shows  the  ceiling  or  vaulting  and 
is  projected  down. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  all  three  kinds  of  mosaic 
are  used  in  the  same  plan.  The  first  two  may  be 
shown  in  one  room,  the  groundwork  to  disappear 
under  the  furniture.  A  needful  explanation  might 
even  be  given  by  projecting  the  constructive  lines  of 
a  ceiling  (penetrations,  etc.),  drawn  in  dotted  or  full 
lines  on  top  of  the  first  two  picturings ;  but  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  keep  such  drawings  clear.  It  is  more  custom- 
ary, especially  in  plans  of  upper  floors,  to  characterize 
salons  and  other  rooms  with  interesting  ceilings  by 
indication  of  these  decorations,  reserving  the  first  two 
methods  for  less  important  places. 

While  the  second  and  third  methods  should  actually 
conform  to  the  practical  exigencies  of  a  plan,  the  first 
may  be  more  or  less  conventional,  and  merely  give  the 
character  of  the  flooring  (stone,  cement,  wood,  etc.). 
Ordinarily,  no  attempt  is  made  to  draw  in  a  number 
of  boards,  which  would  but  blacken  the  plan  and 
destroy  all  effects  of  the  poche. 

The  mosaic  which  most  effectually  characterizes  a 
plan  is  that  of  the  second  method.  An  example  is 
M.  Bigot's  plan  (Fig.  88),  with  its  excellent  portrayal 

16 


226  COMPOSITION    IN    PLAN. 

of  batteries,  machines  and  implements  for  cadet  drill. 
As  a  rule,  all  passages  and  circulations  should  be  left 
white,  or  only  with  a  border  line.  M.  Chaussemiche's 
plan  (Fig.  70)  shows  this  particularly  well.  More- 
over, lines  must  not  cross  an  opening  where  a  passage 
is  to  count.  This  is  apparent  in  the  entrance  to  M. 
Chaussemiche's  plan,  and  a  clever  breaking  of  the 
mosaic  of  the  broad  gallery  around  his  central  court 
gives  an  excellent  example  of  one  method  of  tying  the 
central  spaces  to  those  portions  with  which  it  should 
be  in  direct  communication.  Indeed,  the  mosaic  in 
this  plan  will  well  repay  careful  study. 

For  exterior  work,  a  most  characteristic  court 
mosaic  can  be  made  by  using  the  old  Roman  Opus 
Insertum,  or  a  flagging  laid  in  and  bonded  as  a  wall 
would  be.  As  with  repetitions  of  parallel  lines,  great 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  effect  is  regular,  and  not 
dark  in  spots. 

There  is  a  last  remark  applicable  to  the  designing 
of  decoration,  poche  and  mosaic  alike.  It  has  to  do 
with  repeated  motives;  there  are  examples  in  both 
M.  Chaussemiche's  and  M.  Tournaire's  Grand  Prix. 
Successive  groups  of  similar  repeated  motives,  having 
not  less  than  five  elements  in  each  group,  will  seem 
equal,  although  there  may  be  slight  differences  in  the 
actual  number  of  elements.  That  is  to  say,  in  Fig. 
70  we  see  a  side  elevation  of  three  apparently  equal 
divisions;  but  counting  the  number  of  windows,  we 
find  that  the  last  division  has  six  windows  in  its 
length,  while  each  of  the  others  has  but  five.  Like- 
wise, in  Fig.  89,  two  courts  balance  each  other  as 


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INDICATION    OF    MOSAIC.  227 

regards  the  main  lateral  axis;  and  yet  the  arcades 
which  compose  them  differ  in  nmnber.  There  is  no 
mathematical  rule  in  art.  That  which  looks  right  is 
right. 

To  sum  up,  both  poche  and  mosaic  should  be  char- 
acteristic, rich  and  interesting  in  the  important  parts 
of  the  plan;  more  simple  in  the  others;  and  the 
mosaic  should  unite  the  plan,  accentuate  the  passages 
and  bring  out  the  grouping  decided  on  for  the  goche. 


PART  VI. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Pkactical.  Suggestions  in  Planning. 

As  in  foregoing  parts  of  this  discussion,  limited 
space  will  only  allow  us  a  few  suggestions  as  to  prac- 
tical needs  of  different  kinds  of  buildings.  EacTi 
program  must  be  so  unlike  all  other  programs  that  a 
separate  treatise  on  each  possible  subject  would  be 
necessary  to  cover  the  ground.  Moreover,  needs 
change  with  times,  and  what  might  be  laid  down  to- 
day, in  a  few  years  would  become  useless.  Every 
program  must,  of  necessity,  receive  especial  study 
from  the  practical  point  of  view,  a  task  which  the  in- 
dividual architect  performs  for  himself.  Only  the 
most  general  classing,  then,  is  within  the  province  of 
this  discussion.  Be  it  remembered,  the  following 
recommendations  are  not  given  as  absolute. 

The  House. 

Any  distinct  sketch  of  the  domestic  architecture  of 
times  past,  or  even  of  domestic  architecture  and  needs 
in  foreign  countries  to-day,  would  take  much  time 
and  be  of  little  use.  It  is,  therefore,  best  to  limit  the 
field  to  our  own  time  and  country,  the  twentieth  cen- 
tury and  America.    I  remember  some  excellent  re- 

228 


THE    HOUSE.  229 

marks  made  by  an  American  architect  who  has  had 
great  success  in  domestic  work,  and  which  will  serve 
as  introduction  to  the  present  subject.    He  said  that 
a  house,  the  home  of  a  man  and  of  his  family,  should 
be,  primarily,  an  expression  of  the  character  of  its 
inmates.     The  first  duty  of  the  architect  who  wants 
to  make  a  suitable  abode  for  some  one  else  is  not 
merely  to  study  the  requirements  that  are  laid  be- 
fore him  on  paper,  but  to  acquaint  himself  with  the 
habits  and  tastes  of  the  people  whose  abode  he  is  to 
build.    A  man  who  wants  to  splurge— not  only  to 
entertain,  but  to  show  that  he  can  entertain— should 
not  be  housed  in  a  brown  Quaker-like  cottage  any 
more  than  the  quiet  student  in  a  casino  or  cafe-concert. 
Not  that  any  artist  should  do  violence  to  his  tastes 
and  become  vulgar.    That  would  be  as  false  as  to  do 
violence  to  his  client's  characteristics.    Shakespeare 
was  always  Shakespeare,  whether  he  was  interpreting 
a  Falstaff,  a  Richard  the  Third  or  a  Rosalind.    The 
architect,  however,  must  not  build  his  own  house  and 
then  expect  every  one  to  be  happy  therein.    He  should 
read  his  client,  and  translate  the  reading  into  wood 
and  stone.     So  doing,  he  will  unconsciously  carry 
out  the  aim  of  another  successful  man,  who  said: 
* '  Each  house  should  have  some  especial  arrangement, 
some  new  problem  worked  out  and  expressed  in  it." 
No  two  human  beings  are  alike,  and  if  the  houses 
they  inhabit  are  characteristic  of  them  the  houses  will 
be  unlike.    Thus  the  architect  of  the  houses  will  never 
hear  the  reproach,  *'0h  yes,  that  was  built  by  Smith. 
All  his  designs  are  the  same. ' ' 


230  PKACTICAIi    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 

As  to  general  requirements  of  modem  life  in  Amer- 
ica, in  the  placing  of  any  house  there  are  to  be  con- 
sidered: approach,  possible  views  from  the  house, 
orientation  and  prevailing  local  winds.  The  kitchens 
must  not  be  apparent  from  the  approach ;  the  living 
and  reception  rooms  must  profit  by  the  view ;  break- 
fast rooms,  etc.,  should  face  east;  bedrooms  and  liv- 
ing rooms  not  restricted  to  a  north  exposure ;  porches, 
verandas,  etc.,  toward  the  view  on  the  sunny  side  of 
the  house  and  protected  from  the  wind.  In  a  warm 
climate  or  for  summer  it  is  well  to  have  a  north  porch, 
shielded  from  the  rays  of  the  hot  sun ;  in  a  cold  cli- 
mate, the  entrance  door  should  not  be  on  the  north 
side  of  the  house;  the  kitchen,  because  usually  too 
warm,  may  well  face  north. 

Then  comes  the  question  whether  or  not  a  client 
intends  to  entertain  much.  If  he  does,  the  house 
should  *'open  up"  well;  rooms  be  large,  and  con- 
nected by  wide  doorways;  salons  carefully  placed 
*  *  en  suite, ' '  in  order  to  obtain  as  many  vistas  as  pos- 
sible. If  not  for  entertaining,  the  rooms  may  be 
smaller  and  not  necessarily  so  connected.  In  that 
case  prominence  should  be  given  to  the  minor  arrange- 
ments, fireplaces,  with  seats,  nooks,  etc.,  and  a  more 
homelike  and  domestic  atmosphere  diffused  through 
the  work. 

In  general,  there  are  three  groupings  in  the  pro- 
gram of  a  modem  North  American  habitation :  First, 
rooms  affected  especially  by  tbe  family;  second, 
those  for  the  reception  and  entertainment  of  stran- 
gers ;  third,  those  given  over  to  the  servants.    It  will 


THE    HOUSE.  231 

not  be  easy  to  discuss  each  group  separately,  but  the 
reader  should  bear  in  mind  that  in  making  a  design 
he  must  not  allow  one  group  to  interfere  with  another. 
By  way  of  illustration,  in  a  well-devised  house  there 
ought  to  be  two  staircases,  one  for  the  family  and 
visitors,  and  another  for  the  servants ;  there  should 
be  three  bath  rooms,  one  connected  with  the  guest 
rooms ;  one  for  the  family,  and  a  separate  one  for  the 
servants. 

To  take  up  in  order  the  requisites  of  a  house :  the 
entrance  hall  should  be  preceded  by  a  vestibule 
seconded  by  a  cloak  room  or  cloak  closet,  and  a  toilet 
room  may  well  be  another  adjunct.  The  entrance 
hall  must  permit  of  necessary  furniture.  As  inti- 
mated, in  a  house  destined  for  entertaining,  the  salons 
should  be  in  succession,  giving  vistas  and  suites  of 
perspective ;  small  salons,  etc.,  at  the  end  of  the  large 
ones;  never  a  small  one  between  two  large  ones; 
reception  rooms  at  the  entrance  of  the  house.  In 
rooms  for  official  or  public  receptions,  a  double  (par- 
allel) circulation  through  the  rooms  must  be  planned. 
Ball  rooms  should  have  provision  for  the  orchestra. 

In  a  library,  the  two  requirements  are  wall-space 
for  the  bookcases  and  light  for  reading.  One  end 
might  be  given  over  to  bookcases  and  the  other  with 
a  fireplace,  to  study.  Excessive  heat  is  bad  for  the 
books;  hence  book  shelves  must  never  quite  reach  to 
the  top  of  the  room.  Dens  and  smoking  rooms  should 
be  comfortably  furnished  with  nooks  and  fireplaces ; 
it  is  well  to  place  a  toilet  room  near.  In  a  billiard 
room  allow  six  feet  of  free  space  around  the  billiard 


232  PRACTICAL.    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 

table.  A  raised  platform  for  onlookers  is  good  (extra 
space).  Light  from  two  sides  is  needed  to  obviate 
direct  shadows. 

Dining  rooms,  on  the  east  side  of  the  house,  should 
be  long  rather  than  square,  not  less  than  13  feet  6 
inches  in  any  direction  (extra  allowance  being  made 
when  furniture  subtracts  from  this  dimension) .  Pro- 
vision is  to  be  made  for  the  sideboard.  The  best 
place  for  the  fireplace  is  usually  at  the  end  of  the 
room,  so  placed  as  not  to  scorch  those  at  table.  Cross 
lights  are  good  in  a  dining  room;  otherwise  light 
from  end,  that  one  person  only  need  have  light  di- 
rectly in  front  or  light  directly  behind. 

A  butler's  pantry  should  communicate  with  both 
dining  room  and  kitchen,  but  in  such  a  way  as  not  to 
become  merely  a  passage  from  one  to  the  other.  The 
butler's  pantry  must  be  at  least  five  by  eight  feet  and 
ought  to  contain  a  sink  (hot  and  cold  water),  shelves 
and  cases  for  china,  etc.  In  a  well-planned  house 
there  will  be  an  ice  box,  with  compartments  for  food, 
opening,  one  from  the  butler's  pantry,  one  from  the 
kitchen,  while  the  portion  reserved  for  the  ice  itself 
opens  from  a  side  porch  or  outer  kitchen.  Last  in 
the  list  of  pantries  should  be  a  light  kitchen  closet  or 
kitchen  pantry,  with  space  for  flour  barrels. 

Kitchens  must  be  well  lighted,  and,  as  before  sug- 
gested, may  be  placed  on  the  north  side  of  the  house. 
The  range  and  hot  water  boiler  are  not  to  be  near  the 
kitchen  table  and  sink;  for  in  summer,  proximity  of 
either  makes  it  impossible  to  work.  All  plumbing 
should  be  kept  away  from  outside  walls,  but  the  sink 


THE    HOUSE.  233 

put  near  a  window.  It  is  well  to  place  a  hood  with  a 
good  draught  over  the  range  or  stove.  The  proper 
finish  for  a  kitchen  is  paint  or  tiles.  A  tile  floor 
might,  however,  be  too  cold.  Laundries  should  have 
well-lighted  stationary  tubs,  the  plumbing  kept  away 
from  outside  walls.  A  drying  room  with  stove  is  an 
excellent  addition.  The  back  stairs  of  a  house  ought 
never  to  open  directly  out  of  the  kitchen ;  if  they  do 
they  form  a  sort  of  chimney,  drawing  all  the  odors  of 
cooking  to  the  upper  floors.  It  is  becoming  more  and 
more  necessary  to  plan  servants '  dining  rooms  or  sit- 
ting rooms  in  our  modem  houses.  These  can  only  be 
dispensed  with  when  the  kitchen  is  very  large  and 
there  is  a  sewing  room  up  stairs  where  servants  may 
sit. 

On  the  upper  floors  bedrooms  naturally  form  the 
important  feature.  Here  care  must  be  taken  to  allow 
room  for  different  pieces  of  necessary  furniture. 
Beds  should  never  be  placed  in  a  draught  nor  so  dis- 
posed that  light  from  the  window  will  shine  directly 
into  the  eyes  of  the  occupant.  Artificial  lights  are 
required  at  each  side  of  the  dressing  tables.  Plan- 
ning of  the  children 's  rooms  should  permit  the  mother 
of  the  family  to  come  from  her  own  chamber  to  the 
children,  without  passing  through  the  general  hall. 
Guest  rooms  should  not  open  so  as  to  command  those 
of  the  family. 

Dressing  rooms  need  to  be  well  lighted  and  heated, 
connected  with  the  bedrooms  to  which  they  belong 
and  have  a  separate  entrance,  in  order  that  a  maid  or 
valet  can  prepare  toilet  arrangements.     In  a  large 


234  PKACTICAIi    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 

house  it  well  to  plan  a  bath  room  for  each  bedroom. 
Bath  rooms  should  not  have  more  than  one  entrance, 
unless  exception  be  made  for  separate  entrances,  ex- 
clusively for  a  servant  who  is  to  prepare  the  bath, 
etc.  The  best  arrangement  is  a  small  vestibule  lead- 
ing from  both  bedroom  and  hall  and  into  the  bath 
room.  Proper  finishes  for  the  last  are  paint,  putty, 
tiles,  or  some  similar  washable  substance.  Bath 
rooms  and  toilet  rooms  in  any  house  should  be  so  dis- 
posed that  plumbing  may  be  kept  in  vertical  line. 
Soil  and  waste  pipes  must  not  be  visible,  but  acces- 
sible in  case  of  need. 

Bed  and  bath  rooms  ought  never  to  be  too  near  the 
servants'  staircases,  or  arranged  so  that  the  noise  or 
inopportune  presence  of  servants  coming  down  in  the 
morning  may  be  annoying.  If  possible,  arrange  that 
the  servants '  staircase  may  be  entirely  closed  off  from 
the  part  of  the  house  given  over  to  family  sleeping 
rooms.  This  is  a  sure  way  to  avoid  the  numerous 
suggested  annoyances,  inevitable  if  servants  must 
pass  through  the  main  hall  of  the  house.  In  any  case, 
make  back  stair  landings  independent  of  all  lower 
passages.  Linen  closets,  and  sewing  room  next  it 
have  as  chief  requisite  good  light. 

All  the  windows  of  a  house,  indeed  those  of  most 
buildings,  should  reach  the  ceiling.  This  will  force 
a  change  of  air  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  rooms. 

Stables. 
Let  the  architect  remember  that  horses,  if  not 
human  beings,  are  yet  beings.    They  require  plenty 


STABLES.  235 

of  air,  protection  from  sudden  changes  of  tempera- 
ture and  a  dry  place  in  which  to  live.  Stables  are 
better  if  opening  south  and  built  of  stone  or  brick, 
with  tile  or  composition  flooring.  Wood,  because  it 
does  not  dry,  makes  poor  flooring ;  it  has  though  an 
advantage  over  stone,  for  the  latter  may  cause  injury 
to  a  stamping  horse.  Rafters  of  a  stable  should  not 
project  down  or  be  apparent  to  make  corners  for  the 
accumulation  of  dust.  The  ground  of  the  stables 
must  have  an  inclination  of  2^  or  3  per  cent.,  to  allow 
the  water  to  run  off,  and  the  gutter  2  per  cent.  Too 
great  height  of  ceiling  in  a  stable  is  bad,  since  the 
floor  will  remain  badly  heated.    The  windows  should 


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Fig.  90. 

be  placed  high,  and,  because  of  draughts,  are  best 
behind  the  horses.  In  each  stable  the  man's  room 
should  be  placed  so  as  to  enable  him  to  have  oversight 
of  the  horses  at  night.  The  best  plan  is  to  place  it  at 
the  end  of  a  rectangular  stable,  raising  the  i;oom  floor 
three  or  four  feet,  that  a  window  will  overlook  the 
stalls. 

Fig.  90  gives  different  arrangements  of  stalls  in  a 
stable.  In  A  windows  can  easily  be  placed  behind  the 
horses.  The  width  of  the  passage  may  be  somewhat 
reduced ;  but  it  is  well  to  have  room  to  turn  a  horse. 
In  B,  if  the  stable  is  short,  windows  would  be  placed 
at  each  end  to  give  light  down  the  central  passage;  if 
the  stable  is  long,  they  must  be  placed  in  the  walls  at 


236  PEACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 

the  heads  of  the  horses,  high  and  possibly  opposite 
the  partitions.  C  is  the  best  arrangement.  The 
horses  can  see  each  other  and  the  draught  question  is 
easily  solved.  Z>  is  a  last,  rather  luxurious,  disposi- 
tion. It  is  not  certain  that  the  central  passage  made 
for  the  groom  is  a  very  good  addition;  for  thus  the 
horses  grow  less  accustomed  to  having  him  enter  the 
stalls. 

Following  are  some  dimensions  adopted  for  cavalry 
stables  in  France.  The  partitions  between  the  stalls 
are  kept  low.  The  minimum  cube  of  air  necessary 
for  each  horse  is  20  mc. 

Width  of  stall,  1.45  m. 

Width  of  stable,  one  row  of  horses,  6  m. 

Width  of  stable,  two  rows  of  horses  and  passage,  10.40  m. 

Width  of  stable,  two  rows,  head  to  head,  12  m. 

Height  of  ceiling,  3.50  m. 

Calculating  the  cube  of  air  for  each  of  these,  we 
find  respectively,  30.45  m.,  26.39  m.  and  30.45  m. 

The  hay  is  stored  above  the  stable  and  can  thus  be 
let  down  to  each  horse  through  traps.  For  the  manure 
hole,  ten  cubic  feet  is  enough  per  horse,  if  the  manure 
is  taken  away  every  day.  No  manure  should  be  left 
against  a  wall  of  the  stable,  because  the  cement  or 
mortar  would  be  corroded. 

An  adjunct  of  stables  is  the  court  for  cleaning 
horses.  This  must  be  open  on  a  side  other  than  the 
north. 

In  carriage  houses  it  must  be  possible  to  wheel  each 
carriage,  without  turning,  into  its  respective  place. 
No  vehicle  should  be  in  front  of  another.    In  other 


BUILDINGS    FOB    COMMUNITIES.  237 

words,  a  carriage  house  is  a  rectangular  room  as  long 
as  the  sum  of  the  widths  of  the  carriages  to  be  stored, 
about  twelve  feet  wide,  with  a  door  eight  feet  wide 
in  front  of  the  place  of  each  carriage.  It  is  well  to 
allow  ten  feet  as  the  width  of  each  carriage,  although 
it  is  possible  to  do  with  less. 

Harness  rooms  should  be  cool  and  dry ;  harness  not 
kept  in  the  stables. 

Buildings  foe  Communities. 

In  all  buildings  where  an  agglomeration  of  persons 
live  together,  among  the  chief  needs,  are  assured 
cleanliness  and  good  ventilation. 

In  barrack  buildings  the  windows  should  be  as  high 
as  possible,  with  low  sills,  and  there  should  be  at  least 
450  cubic  feet  of  air  per  soldier  in  the  barrack  room. 
All  interior  reentrant  angles  or  comers  are  to  be 
rounded  out  and  no  projections  allowed  to  make  un- 
necessary angles.  Horses  are  not  to  be  put  under  any 
part  of  such  buildings. 

In  the  study  of  homes  and  retreats  for  the  aged, 
infirm  or  incurable,  no  matter  what  the  practical  ex- 
igencies, the  architect  should  seek  to  produce,  as  much 
as  possible,  the  aspect  or  illusion  of  the  individual 
home.  As  far  as  may  be,  everything  which  tends  to 
prolong  life,  to  make  it  gay  and  bright  is  to  be  sup- 
plied. As  later  to  be  observed,  this  is  equally  true 
in  the  case  of  insane  asylums. 

When  dormitories  exist  they  should  not  be  too  long 
—sixteen  to  twenty  beds  is  a  maximum.  Staircases, 
in  short  flights,  with  intermediary  landings,  no  turn- 


238  PKACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 

ing  stairs.  Elevators  supplement  the  stairs.  The 
windows  of  the  dormitories  ought  to  be  five  feet  wide, 
and  on  both  sides  of  the  room,  to  give  good  ventila- 
tion; ceilings  sixteen  to  twenty  feet  high;  width  of 
rooms  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet,  for  children  twenty- 
two  feet.  Rooms  should  be  finished  with  tar  paint 
or  with  some  similar  washable  substance;  but  the 
floors  of  hard  wood  should  be  waxed,  never  washed ; 
otherwise  they  retain  moisture  and  give  rise  to 
dampness.  Floors  covered  with  lineoleum  can  be 
mopped. 

It  is  not  necessarily  advisable  to  place  dining  halls 
near  the  dormitories ;  never  kitchens  near  the  latter, 
although  these  should  communicate  with  the  dining 
halls.  The  best  arrangement  for  dining  halls  is  that 
of  small  tables  of  six  to  ten  places  each. 

There  should  always  be  an  infirmary  connected 
with  a  home  or  retreat,  and  here  the  dormitory  must 
have  2,000  to  3,000  cubic  feet  of  air  per  patient. 

Hospitals. 

The  same  need  of  giving  as  much  pleasure  as  pos- 
sible to  the  inmates  felt  in  designing  a  home  or  retreat 
is  present  in  planning  a  hospital.  Great  simplicity 
is  also  necessary  here.  Comers  and  projections 
make  receptacles  for  dust ;  dust  and  dirt  are  the  home 
of  microbes.  In  the  plan  for  a  hospital  there  must 
be  no  closed  courts,  no  reentrant  angles  between 
buildings— in  short,  no  joining  whatever  of  buildings. 
Each  building  should  be  quite  separate  and  only 
united  to  the  others  by  low  or  open  galleries. 


HOSPITALS. 


239 


Orientation,  being  governed  by  atmospheric  condi- 
tions, varies  with  the  place.  Usually  the  longest 
side  of  a  building  is  placed  across  the  direction  of  the 
prevailing  wind,  thus  insuring  the  greatest  possibility 
of  a  constant  change  of  air.  All  the  buildings  of  one 
hospital  would,  naturally,  lie  in  the  same  direction. 
Two  or  three  stories  are  admissible. 

Windows  of  wards  need  not  be  wide,  but  should  be 
high  and  rise  to  the  ceiling,  the  sills  about  three  feet 
six  inches  from  the  floor.  There  should  be  a  small 
opening  at  the  floor  level  to  permit  of  occasional  thor- 
ough ventilation  there.  The  beds  of  the  patients  are 
best  placed  with  the  head  toward  the  wall  between 
windows ;  but  it  is  advisable  to  leave  a  small  space  or 
passage  between  head  of  the  bed  and  wall.  There 
should  be  but  one  bed  between  each  window.  Width 
of  room  would  be  from  twenty-five  to  twenty-eight 
feet ;  of  a  window,  about  three  feet  eight  inches,  and 
of  wall  space  between  windows,  five  feet  four  inches— 
in  all  nine  feet  from  axis  to  axis  of  windows.  The 
minimum  cube  of  air  for  each  patient  is  from  1,800 
to  2,000  cubic  feet.  This  gives  as  height  between 
ceiling  and  floor  sixteen  feet.  No  curtains  or  hang- 
ings are  allowed  in  a  hospital.  All  angles  are  to  be 
rounded  out,  the  walls  covered  with  tar  paint  or 
some  similar  washable  substaijce,  the  floors  of  oak 
with  paraflfine  finish  and  all  cracks  kept  carefully 
filled. 

Two  chutes  are  necessary  from  each  ward  to  the 
basement ;  one  for  clothes  to  be  washed,  and  the  other 
for  cloths,  etc.,  to  be  destroyed. 


240        pkacticaij  suggestions  in  planning. 

Open  fireplaces  are  good  additions  to  the  heating 
and  ventilation.  These  are  especially  salutary  be- 
cause they  give  a  cheerful  aspect  to  the  sick  room,  and 
so  improve  the  mental  tone  of  the  patients.  Of 
course,  there  must  be  artificial  means  of  ventilation 
and  a  carefully  regulated  heating  apparatus. 

The  stairs,  short,  straight  flights,  with  two  or  three 
platforms  between  stories,  are  supplemented  by  ele- 
vators with  room  for  two  beds.    Water  closets,  hav- 
ing  ventilation   from   at   least   two 
sides,  are  to  be  placed  at  an  exterior 
angle  of  the  building  or,  better  yet, 
entirely  separated  therefrom  and  con- 
nected by  low  passages    (Fig.  91). 
For  the  bath  rooms  a  special  program 
should  be  exacted.    Vaulted  rooms 
are  good  here,  because  the  vapor  that 
is  sure  to  condense  will  run  down  the 
sides,  and  can  be  collected  at  the  floor  level. 

Small  wards  for  contagious  diseases,  recognized  too 
late,  ought  to  exist  in  all  hospitals. 

In  surgical  hospitals  the  passages  must  be  arranged 
so  as  to  avoid  sudden  turns  in  transporting  a  patient 
from  his  ward  to  the  operating  room.  Sudden  turns 
produce  shocks  and  consequent  pain.  The  operating 
room  must  have  vertical  as  well  as  horizontal 
light;  no  projections;  comers  rounded  out,  and 
walls  so  treated  as  to  allow  of  thorough  disinfec- 
ting. 

In  hospitals  for  contagious  diseases,  make  many 
small  wards.     Since  it  is  never  allowable  to  pass 


HOSPITALS.  241 

through  one  ward  to  reach  another,  a  separate  pas- 
sage or  access  is  necessary. 

There  are  numberless  accessories  for  a  hospital 
which  must  have  a  special  program.  The  phannacy 
is  best  placed  on  the  ground  floor,  that  it  may  dispose 
of  a  cool  basement  for  perishable  substances.  Sound 
of  the  machinery  should  never  be  perceptible  from  the 
wards.  Also,  all  depressing  sights,  funeral  arrange- 
ments, etc.,  are  to  be  kept  away  from  the  patients. 


Fig.  92. 

In  insane  asylums  there  are  different  groups  of 
patients  to  be  separated.  The  cries  of  turbulent  pa- 
tients should  not  be  audible  to  excite  the  more  quiet. 
An  asylum  m-ust  be  more  or  less  a  prison,  but  without 
evidence  thereof.  There  are  usually  more  women 
than  men,  therefore  a  symmetrical  composition  bal- 
ancing the  quarters  of  the  two  sexes  is  not  pos- 
sible. 

The  gardens  ought  to  be  large  and  attractive ;  yet 
arranged  to  facilitate  surveillance.  Rocks  or  ponds, 
which  might  promote  suicides,  all  possible  causes  of 
accident  should  be  excluded;  even  locks,  sunk  in  the 
doors.  Walls  around  the  asylum,  if  sunk,  as  in  Fig. 
92,  allow  patients  to  look  out  over  the  country,  and 
so  lessen  the  feeling  of  restraint. 
17 


242       peactical  suggestions  in  planning. 

Schools. 

Taking  up  the  question  of  schools,  we  find  different 
categories  of  rooms  and  courts.  The  latter  should 
never  be  closed  on  all  four  sides,  and  one  of  the  open 
sides  should  not  be  toward  the  north.  This  is  to 
assure  sunshine  in  the  court,  that  the  latter  may  be 
completely  dried. 

Dining  rooms  in  school  buildings  are  to  be  lighted, 
if  possible,  on  both  sides;  kitchens  separated  from 
living,  study  and  class  rooms ;  study  rooms  and  bed- 
rooms or  dormitories  arranged  so  sun  enters  during 
the  day.  Light  for  study  or  class  rooms  is  to  come 
from  the  left  of  the  student,  and  never  from  behind 
a  lecturer  or  speaker.  It  is  not  well  to  make  these 
rooms  more  than  twenty-five  feet  wide,  for  even  with 
very  large  windows  the  light,  in  sufficient  quantity, 
will  not  penetrate  to  a  greater  depth.  Windows  must 
always  go  to  the  ceiling,  and  sills  are  made  about 
four  feet  six  inches  high,  to  prevent  children  at  work 
from  looking  out.  The  sill  is  not  made  higher— it 
would  cast  a  shadow  on  the  workers.  A  room  for 
lessons  in  mathematics  and  other  subjects  necessi- 
tating blackboard  must  not  exceed  in  length  twenty- 
eight  or  thirty  feet— figures  are  not  legible  at  greater 
distance. 

Buildings  foe  Higher  Instruction. 

Universities  and  Colleges,  etc. 
Amphitheaters  and  Lecture  Halls. 

In  such  halls  never  make  unnecessarily  wide  pas- 
sages.   The  audience  ought  to  be  placed  in  a  room 


BUILDINGS    FOE    HIGHER    INSTRUCTION.  243 

of  the  minimum  size,  to  obviate  effort  in  hearing,  see- 
ing and  speaking.  Roughly,  it  is  allowable  to  count 
two  and  one-half  persons  to  ten  square  feet  of  floor 
area,  including  passages  and  allowing  each  person  a 
small  writing  desk.  This  is  a  maximum  for  a  large 
hall;  in  a  small  hall  where  a  generous  treatment  is 
desired,  only  two  persons  to  ten  or  twelve  square  feet 
should  be  counted.  (The  smaller  the  hall,  the  larger 
in  proportion  becomes  the  space  appropriated  by  the 
passages  and  platform.) 

A  serious  course  of  lectures  cannot  adequately  be 
given  to  an  audience  of  more  than  500  or  600  people ; 
for  a  larger  number  the  size  of  the  hall  becomes  too 
great,  and  those  on  the  outskirts  will  find  difficulty  in 
hearing  and  seeing.  This,  naturally,  does  not  apply 
to  popular  lectures,  nor,  a  fortiori,  to  halls  where  the 
question  in  hand  is  to  be  treated  in  a  merely  oratorical 
manner.  The  amphitheater,  semi-circular  in  plan,  is 
adapted  to  the  hearing  of  an  orator.  The  amphi- 
theater is  advantageous  in  that  it  places  a  maximum 
number  of  persons  near  the  speaker,  but  faulty  be- 
cause hard  to  place  in  plan,  to  roof,  light  and  divide 
as  to  aisles  and  entrances.  It  should  be  reserved  for 
an  audience  of  250  persons  or  more.  Using  the 
formula  rs- 

where  a  is  the  floor  area,  we  find  that,  allowing  two 
persons  to  ten  square  feet, 


-_         12  X  2500         1 2500         ,-_       , 

\    TTx  2~  ^  \  SAA  =  1^^96  =  about  28  ft.  3  in. 


244  PRACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 

An  amphitheater  smaller  than  this  (for  here  we  have 
allowed  a  generous  spacing  of  seats  and  not  counted 
the  distance  to  the  tympanum  wall)  would  hardly  be 
possible.  A  rational  minimum  might  be  a  radius  of 
twenty-five  feet;  fifty  feet  diameter.  For  audiences 
of  less  than  250  persons  use  a  rectangular  hall,  with 
seats  arranged  on  a  curve. 

Halls  for  scientific  courses  requiring  a  blackboard 
must  always  be  rectangular  and  the  benches  or  seats 
in  a  straight  or  slightly  curved  line.  This  is  because 
the  line  of  vision  must,  necessarily,  remain  perpen- 
dicular to  the  blackboard.  In  a  physical  lecture  hall 
the  laboratory  is  often  placed  behind  the  hall,  and  a 
sliding  curtain,  which  may  bear  a  blackboard,  closes 
a  wide  opening  and  hides  an  experiment  table  and 

furnace  hood.  The  assist- 
ant in  the  laboratory  can 
thus  prepare  experiments 
during  the  explanation,  and 
later  the  professor  raises  the 
^^'     '  sliding    screen    to    perform 

the  experiment.  Physics  requires  supplementary 
blackboards  on  each  side;  chemical  work  less 
blackboard  space.  A  hall  of  the  form  shown  in  Fig. 
93,  having  mirrors  on  the  surfaces  a  and  &,  may  be 
placed  at  45°  in  the  angle  of  a  plan.  The  mirrors 
show  experiments  from  the  side. 

There  is  a  specially  arranged  hall  in  the  Sorbonne 
for  the  observation  of  experiments  in  vivisection. 
The  operator  stands  at  the  bottom,  in  the  center  of  a 
series  of  raised  circular  platforms;    on  these  latter 


4(xF 


BUILDINGS    FOR    HIGHER    INSTRUCTION.  245 

the  students,  one  tier  above  another,  leaning  upon 
rails  that  curve  slightly  over  (Fig.  94).  The  condi- 
tions are  that  the  eye  of  the  specta- 
tor shall  not  be  more  than  eight  feet 
from  the  operation.  The  operator, 
who  works  on  a  pivoting  table,  is 
really  at  the  bottom  of  an  inverted 
cone,  or  rather  at  the  center  of  a  „     „. 

/  Fig.  94. 

hemisphere  of  heads.     Forty  or  fifty 

students  can  thus  observe  an  operation.    Being  only 

in  the  hall  for  a  short  time  they  do  not  need  to  take 

notes. 

To  prevent  crowding,  all  large  halls  should  have  a 
number  of  entrances  or  exits.  Gallery  staircases 
should  never  be  inside  the  hall,  because  of  the  dis- 
turbance caused  by  late  arrivals.  Staircases  that  are 
to  serve  as  exits  from  public  gatherings  ought  not  to 
have  any  winding  stairs;  in  a  crowd  those  on  the 
inside  near  the  rail  might  be  thrown  down.  Several 
moderately  wide  staircases  are  better  than  a  few  very 
wide  ones,  unless  straight  flights  succeed  each  other 
in  the  same  direction.  This  because  a  broad  stream 
of  people,  turning  a  comer,  becomes  jammed  toward 
the  inside. 

In  the  arrangement  of  the  seats  of  a  hall  there 
should  be  no  long  rows  or  benches,  for  the  places  in 
the  middle  are  difficult  of  access.  Fig.  95  shows  a 
method  for  determining  the  respective  levels  of  seats 
in  a  hall.  The  verticals  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  etc.,  are  equally 
spaced;  the  ray  from  the  eye  of  each  spectator  is 
made  to  pass  at  the  same  height  (four  inches,  per- 


246 


PRACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 


haps)  above  the  head  of  the  spectator  directly  in 
front.  This  gives  a  curve  for  the  locus  of  the  points 
representing  the  eyes  of  the  spectators. 


\l   -^rm 


Lighting  exclusively  from  above  is  unsuited  to  lec- 
ture halls;  moreover,  it  does  not  permit  of  a  quick 
change  of  air  between  lectures,  so  is  reprehensible  in 
point  of  ventilation.  The  best  light  is  from  three 
sides,  especially  for  blackboard  work;  light  from 
behind  lecturer  is  inadmissible.  If  the  light  is  uni- 
lateral it  must  come  from  the  left  of  the  spectators. 
This  is  permissible  when  the  height  of  the  room  is 
equal  or  greater  than  two-thirds  of  the  width,  the 
latter  not  being  excessive,  say  less  than  thirty  or 
thirty-five  feet.  Windows  rise  to  the  ceiling  and  sills 
are  not  more  than  three  feet  six  inches  high.  There 
should  be  a  great  many  windows  with  no  wide  wall 
spaces  between.  Artificial  light  is  to  be  diffused.  A 
central  chandelier  is  not  good.  For  lantern  and 
stereoscopic  work  automatically  closing  windows  are 
best. 

The  question  of  acoustics  is  most  important,  but  it 
has  not  been,  and  is  unlikely  ever  to  be,  satisfactorily 
solved.    So  many  factors,  uncontrollable  by  the  archi- 


BUILDINGS    FOR    HIGHER    INSTRUCTION.  247 

tect,  enter  into  the  problem  (presence  or  absence  of 
audience,  etc.)  that  no  definite  result  can  be  obtained. 
Nevertheless,  some  rules  and  suggestions  will  help  in 
eliminating  bad  elements. 

A  sound  wave,  beginning  at  a  point  and  spreading 
out  into  space  in  an  even  temperature,  grows  in  a 
spherical  form  from  the  point  of  origin  as  center.  Its 
intensity  diminishes  approximately  as  its  surface 
increases ;  in  other  words,  in  proportion  to  the  square 
of  the  radius.  Consequently  the  intensity  of  the 
sound  ten  feet  from  the  center  would  be  a  fourth  as 
loud  as  it  would  be  five  feet  thence. 

But  if  a  sound  passes  through  a  straight  tube  it  is 
held  in,  the  intensity  being  diminished  by  the  vis- 
cosity of  the  air,  by  friction  and  reflection  from  the 
sides  of  the  tube.  This  is  not  very  great  in  propor- 
tion to  the  distance  travelled.  A  megaphone  acts 
somewhat  like  a  tube  in  projecting  sound  in  a  certain 
direction.  Indeed,  a  speaker's  mouth  has  a  certain 
similarity  to  both ;  this  explains  the  indistinctness  of 
the  voice  heard  from  behind  the  speaker. 

Therefore,  as  to  sounds  that  come  to  the  hearer 
directly,  without  reflection,  the  hall  most  resembling 
a  speaking  tube  gives  best  results ;  in  other  words,  a 
long,  narrow  hall,  with,  preferably,  a  barrel  vault, 
the  speaker  placed  at  one  end  and  the  audience  ranged 
in  slightly  rising  rows  on  the  floor  and  in  balconies  at 
the  end. 

But  another  important  factor,  affecting  the  sonority 
of  a  hall,  is  the  reflection  of  the  sound.    A  sound 


248 


PEACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 


wave,  striking  against  a  flat,  properiy  composed  sur- 
face (a  stone  wall  or  similar  reflecting  substance),  is 
reflected  in  almost  equal  intensity,  the  angle  of  reflec- 
tion being  equal  to  that  of  incidence.  Soft  substances 
do  not  reflect  sound,  and  a  much  broken-up  surface 
is  less  effective.  For  this  reason  a  hall  which,  empty, 
produces  echoes  may,  filled  with  an  audience,  prove 
acceptable. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  if  one  sound  is  heard 
only  one-tenth  of  a  second  after  another  the  two  are 
confused  and  apparently  form  only  one;  a  greater 
lapse  of  time,  however,  allows  of  the  sounds  being 
distinguished.  Investigations  confirming  these  fig- 
ures were  made  for  the  arrangement  of  the  amphi- 
theaters of  the  new  Sorbonne  in  Paris.  It  was  there 
finally  determined  that  if,  in  subtracting  the  distance 
travelled  by  a  sound,  in  direct  line  between  the  point 


Fig.  96. 

of  origin  and  the  observer,  from  the  sum  of  the  dis- 
tances travelled  over  by  the  sound  between  the  point 
of  origin  and  the  reflecting  surface  and  between  the  re- 
flecting surface  and  the  observer,  the  space  did  not  ex- 
ceed thirty-four  meters,  no  echo  would  be  discernible. 
In  Fig.  96,  a,  if  0R  +  RA-0A^S4:  meters  ^  112 
feet,  the  sound  at  A  will  be  affected  in  intensity,  but 
not  doubled. 


BUILDINGS    FOR    HIGHER    INSTRUCTION.  249 

It  is  this  reinforcing  of  the  sound  which  makes  it 
absolutely  necessary  to  displace  a  speaker  from  the 
center  of  a  circular  hall.  He  would  otherwise  be 
deafened  by  the  reflection  of  his  own  words  returning 
from  all  points  at  once.  Indeed,  a  number  of  sound 
waves  should  not  be  allowed  to  center  in  one  point,  as 
the  audience  there  would  be  distressed  (Fig.  96,  b). 
Moreover,  in  a  hall  for  an  orchestra,  reflected  waves 
from  one  side  (for  instance,  that  of  the  bass  instru- 
ments) must  not  overbalance  in  certain  parts  of  the 
hall,  and  so  destroy  the  effect  of  the  other  instruments. 

The  architect  must  remember  that  sound  waves  are 
reflected  more  from  the  ceiling  or  dome  of  a  hall  than 
from  the  walls  {c,  Fig.  96)  and  that  the  same  for- 
mula OR  +  RA-OA<  112  feet  is  still  to  be  applied. 
Also,  double  reflections  may  occur,  and  then,  as  in 
Fig.  96,  d,  OR+RR'+R'A-OA  ^112  feet  would 
be  the  formula. 

It  is  usually  these  doubly  reflected  sounds  that  ex- 
ceed the  limit  of  our  formula.  In  consequence,  they 
are  to  be  guarded  against.  They  are  less  likely 
to  come  from  the  dome  than  from  the  sides  of  a  hall. 
In  fact  a  dome,  if  not  too  high  up  nor  too  large,  can 
ordinarily  be  counted  on  merely  to  increase  the  reson- 
ance, without  giving  a  distinct  echo;  the  waves  re- 
flected from  it  do  not  center,  and  lose  themselves  in 
the  audience  (c,  Fig.  96).  Double  reflections  are 
likely  to  occur  if  the  point  of  origin  of  the  sound  is 
near  either  the  prolongation  of  the  curve  of  a  large 
dome  or  of  the  walls  of  a  cylindrical  plan.  Then  the 
phenomena  presented  in  the  whispering  galleries  of 


250 


PRACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 


the  Capitol  at  Washington  or  the  dome  of  St.  Paul 's, 
London,  are  duplicated.  The  sound  travels  along 
the  sides  of  a  polygon  inscribed  in  a  section  of  the 
dome  or  cylinder,  the  plane  of  the  section  being  per- 
pendicular to  the  reflecting  surfaces,  i.  e.,  passing 
through  the  center  of  the  dome  or  being  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder. 
Fig.  97  shows  in  section  and  in 
plan  how  such  repeatedly  re- 
flected sound  waves  may  give  a 
disastrous  result.  Generally 
speaking,  all  reflection  of  sound 
waves  from  the  vertical  sides 
of  a  cylindrical  hall,  or  even  of 
a  hemicycle  are  to  be  avoided. 
Fig.  97,  b,  shows  how  the  lines 
of  the  waves  continue  around 
or  across  a  hall.  Their  center- 
ing or  focalizing  will,  neces- 
sarily, create  nodes  or  zones 
where  it  will  be  impossible  to  hear  clearly.  In 
such  halls  the  surest  way  of  preventing  echoes  is  to 
make  the  seats  of  the  audience  rise  well  above  the 
level  of  the  speaker,  or  the  origin  of  the  sounds,  and 
to  break  up,  as  much  as  possible,  the  vertical  surfaces. 
It  is  better  not  to  place  the  origin  of  the  sounds  very 
far  from  the  center  of  the  curve  of  a  plan,  as  the 
resultant  obtuse  angles  of  reflection  nearly  always 
lead  to  embarrassments.  This  was  done  in  the  audi- 
torium of  the  Trocadero  in  Paris,  where  the  plan 
somewhat  resembles  b  of  Fig.  97.    Although  the  seats 


on*nv*T(K'>  Ka-oai  JIZ. 
Fig.  97. 


BUILDINGS    FOR    HIGHER    INSTRUCTION.  251 

of  the  audience  do  rise  above  the  level  of  the  stage, 
the  original  dome  sent  the  rising  reflected  waves  back, 
and,  as  a  result,  the  acoustics  were  so  bad  that  a  false 
dome  had  to  be  built  inside  of  the  real  one ;  later  on 
this  change  was  supplemented  by  wires  hung  with 
small  flags,  pennants  and  other  bits  of  drapery  to  in- 
tercept the  sound  waves.  Even  the  last  expedient 
was  not  entirely  effectual,  and  in  certain  parts  of  the 
hall  it  is  still  impossible  to  understand  a  speaker. 
It  may  be  interesting  to  note  that,  although  within  the 
faulty  zones  a  piano  gives  a  distinct,  almost  unbear- 
able doubling  of  each  note,  organ  and  even  orchestral 
music  is  not  as  noticeably  bad. 

The  surface  directly  behind  a  speaker  is  usually 
quite  unbroken  and  is  possibly  curved  forward  some- 
what to  deflect  the  sound  waves  into  a  more  parallel 
or  slightly  convergent  direction  (see  at  left  of  c  and  d 
of  Fig.  96;  also  e  of  Fig.  96). 

We  have  not  yet  discussed  the  manner  in  which  the 
loudness  of  a  single  prolonged  note  may  be  augmented 
or  decreased  by  the  mingling  with  its  reflection.  If 
in  our  formula  OR-\-RA  —  OA  is  an  exact  multiple 
of  the  wave  length  (the  distance  a  wave  travels  in  a 
second,  about  1,100  feet,  divided  by  the  number  of 
vibrations  per  second  of  the  particular  tone)  the 
sound  in  the  especial  point,  A,  will  be  much  aug- 
mented ;  on  the  other  hand,  if  OR  -f-  RA  —  OA  is  an 
odd  multiple  of  half  wave  lengths  the  sound  will  be 
very  much  lessened.  It  needs  only  a  displacement  of 
a  few  feet  of  either  A  ov  Rio  pass  from  the  maximum 
to  the  minimum.    Also,  a  slight  change  in  the  note 


252  PKACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 

makes  as  great  a  difference.  Therefore,  if  but  one 
reflection  were  to  affect  the  sound  the  result  would  be 
disastrous.  This  never  happens,  but  a  dominating 
reflection  from  one  part  of  the  hall  might  occur  (such 
as  from  the  rear  wall  of  a  long  hall  with  parallel 
sides),  and  must  always  be  avoided  in  consequence. 
There  is  a  general  opinion  that  coves  between  the 
walls  and  a  ceiling  are  good.  In  a  long  hall  the  end 
opposite  the  origin  of  the  sound  should  be  deadened 
to  prevent  directly  reflected  waves  from  interfering 
with  direct  waves.  To  sum  up  the  whole  question, 
reflections  which  do  not  center  (are  evenly  distrib- 
uted) are  allowable,  provided  they  do  not  give  an 
echo.  Eesonance  is  bad,  if  the  material  which  re- 
sounds continues  the  sound  long  after  the  original 
sound  has  stopped.  It  is  especially  so  when  (as  with 
the  cracked  sounding-board  of  a  piano)  it  produces 
a  distinguishable  note  of  its  own.  Vertical  surfaces 
are  to  be  broken  up  except  just  behind  the  origin  of 
the  sound.  Unbroken  domes  may  be  useful  if  not 
too  far  off.  As  already  suggested,  stone  is  one  of 
the  best  reflectors  and  it  does  not  resound  much  itself ; 
because  of  its  qualities,  however,  it  must  not  be  care- 
lessly used.  Wood  also  is  a  fairly  good  reflector,  but 
it  becomes  resonant  when  very  dry  and  may  then  in- 
crease the  difficulties  presented  by  all  large  halls. 
When  wood  is  cracked  it  may  be  very  objectionable. 
Metals  are  also  resonant  and,  if  not  held  securely  in 
place,  liable  to  produce  perceptible  sounds.  Draper- 
ies, hangings,  an  audience,  etc.,  are  not  reflectors  and 
do  not  resound.     The  softer  a  substance  or  material, 


BUILDINGS    FOR    HIGHER    INSTRUCTION.  253 

the  less  resonant  is  it  likely  to  be.  The  breaking  up 
of  surfaces  lessens  their  reflecting  power,  because  the 
sound  waves  are  dispersed  in  all  directions.  Last  of 
all,  the  older  a  construction  the  more  resonant  it  be- 
comes, especially  when  there  is  much  wood  in  the 
interior  finishing. 

A  lecture  hall  should  have  direct  ventilation,  even 
though  this  is  supplemented  by  artificial  means. 
There  must  be  windows  which  can  be  thrown  open 
between  lectures.  Artificial  ventilation  can  be  classed 
in  two  groups :  either  fresh  air  is  forced  into  a  room, 
or  the  air  of  the  room  is  drawn  out.  A  really  success- 
ful system  combines  these  methods.  If  heated  air  is 
drawn  or  forced  into  a  hall  it  must  arrive  at  points 
where  it  will  not  incommode.  Inlets  are  placed  above 
the  heads  of  the  audience,  even  at  the  ceiling :  at  the 
latter  level  it  spreads  out,  cools  and  is  forced  down 
to  the  floor.  Outlets  should  be  at 
the  floor  level  and  on  the  same 
side  of  the  room  with  the  inlets. 
This  forces  the  air  to  make  a  cir- 
cuit of  the  room.  Fig.  98  shows 
how  the  ventilation  will  act,  be  it  ^^^-  ^^• 

unilateral  or  bilateral. 

The  best  way  of  introducing  air  into  a  room  is  to 
bring  it  more  or  less  directly  from  the  outside  through 
a  steam,  or  better,  hot-water  radiator.  If  the  ap- 
proaches to  a  hall  are  warmed,  less  heating  will  be 
necessary  for  the  hall  proper. 

The  annexes  of  a  lecture  hall  are  the  study,  or  pro- 
fessor's room,  the  storage  rooms,  which  vary  in  im- 


254  PKACTICAIi    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 

portance  and  size  with  the  kind  of  lecture  peculiar  to 
the  hall,  and  cloak  rooms,  etc. 

As  formerly  suggested,  a  physical  or  chemical  lec- 
ture hall  should  have  laboratories,  directly  connected. 
Physical  laboratories,  especially,  are  to  be  furnished 
with  vent-hoods,  which  must  not  shut  off  the  light 
from  work  carried  on  beneath.  The  hood  and  labora- 
tory table  or  furnace  would  be  placed  vertically  to  a 
wall  (necessarily  a  facade  wall),  between  the  win- 
dows, which  latter  should  give,  if  possible,  a  north 
light.  Rooms  below  such  a  laboratory  would  show 
supports  for  the  furnaces  and  rooms  above  must  allow 
the  ventilating  chimneys  to  pass.  In  a  physical 
laboratory  the  blackboard  occupies  a  most  important 
position. 

Laboratories  in  general  must  be  large  and  afford 
,  plenty  of  space  for  the  work  in  hand.  When  a  study 
necessitates  the  carrying  from  place  to  place  of  cum- 
bersome objects,  passages  must  be  very  conveniently 
arranged.    Ventilation  should  be  abundant. 

For  microscopic  work  the  laboratory  becomes 
merely  a  long  gallery,  with  windows  descending  to 
the  level  of  the  work  table  and  giving  north  light 
directly  thereupon.  If,  on  account  of  peculiarities 
in  the  general  plan,  it  becomes  necessary  to  place 
such  a  hall  north  and  south,  the  lighting  is  made  bi- 
lateral, and  a  screen  placed  down  the  middle  of  the 
hall  that  students  can  work  with  a  west  light  in  the 
morning  and  cross  over  to  an  east  light  in  the  after- 
noon. Tables  for  microscopic  work  must  not  be  sus- 
ceptible to  vibrations. 


BUILDINGS    FOB    HIGHEB    INSTBUCTION.  255 

Another  complement  of  the  lecture  hall  is  the 
museum  of  collections;  this  is  especially  necessary 
in  connection  with  medical  and  anatomical  studies, 
as  well  as  for  natural  history  and  geology.  If  the 
lighting  is  unilateral  the  depth  of  the  museum  should 
not  exceed  twenty-five  feet.  The  substitution  of  light 
from  above  for  lateral  lighting  is  unsuccessful,  both 
in  point  of  lighting  and  ventilation.  If  no  windows 
are  feasible,  arrange  the  cases  of  shelves  that  the  light 
which  strikes  them  will  be  as  inclined  as  possible. 
For  this  reason  a  skylight  should  not  cover  the  whole 
ceiling.  The  cases  must  stand  under  dark  portions 
of  the  latter;  therefore  the  room  must  be  made  low 
and  wide.    A  glance  at  Fig.  99  will  explain  this. 


l\lr^ 


Fig.  99.  Fig.  100. 

Shelves  which  come  one  above  the  other  ought  to  be 
of  glass,  so  that  only  specimens  will  cast  a  shadow. 
The  lower  shelves  may  be  successively  placed  farther 
out  to  get  more  light. 

Halls  having  a  skylight  (Fig.  100)  need  exterior 
and  interior  frames  of  glass  (in  roof  and  ceiling),  to 
form  an  air  space  and  prevent  the  hall  below  from 
becoming  overheated.  The  outer  glass  is  clear  glass, 
but  that  in  the  ceiling,  ground.  For  cleaning  mea- 
sures a  solid  space  must  be  left  as  a  passage  below  the 
roof  and  around  the  glazed  portion  of  the  ceiling. 


256  PKACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 

Moreover,  the  space  between  the  ceiling  and  roof 
should  have  openings  connecting  it  with  the  outer  air. 
This  gives  ventilation,  preventing  an  accumulation 
of  heated  air  and  carrying  off  the  moisture  which 
would  otherwise  condense  on  the  panes.  The  tend- 
ency of  vapor  to  condense  is  often  an  annoyance  to 
the  architect.  It  is  sometimes  well  in  cold  climates 
to  provide  a  means  of  carrying  off  any  water  which 
may  collect  and  run  down  the  inclined  under  side  of 
outer  frames.  Another  possibility  which  it  is  well  to 
keep  in  mind  is  the  breaking  out  of  putty  which 
cements  the  glass  into  its  iron  frames,  caused  by  the 
difference  of  expansion  between  glass  and  iron. 
When  an  exterior  skylight  is  ugly  in  facade  it  may 
be  kept  on  the  inner  side  of  the  building;  this  is 
usually  adequate  for  lighting  purposes.  A  skylight, 
however,  often  gives  character  to  a  roof. 

Before  leaving  the  question  of  schools,  we  may  say 
a  word  about  studios  and  some  special  institutions  of 
learning  which  have  not  the  usual  kind  of  class  room. 
Painters'  and  sculptors'  studios  are  more  or  less 
square,  because  the  students  work  from  models. 
Light  here  is  best,  both  vertical  and  horizontal,  from 
the  north.  Some  painters  like  an  east  or  northeast 
light.  The  heating  should  be  concentrated  near  the 
model  stand,  so  at  the  side  opposite  the  light. 
Models'  dressing  rooms  should  connect  with  such 
studios.  Sculptors'  studios  are  to  be  kept  on  the 
ground,  on  account  of  the  weight  of  the  clay ;  other- 
wise intermediate  supports  below  the  floor  would  be 
necessary.    Architects'   studios   are  long  rooms   or 


BUILDINGS    FOR    HIGHER    INSTRUCTION.  257 

galleries,  with  unilateral  north  light.  There  must  be 
depots  of  boards  and  stretchers. 

Music  rooms  should  not  be  on  the  street,  on  account 
of  noise  from  each. 

Dissecting  rooms,  in  medical  or  art  schools,  call  for 
windows  on  all  four  sides,  giving  complete  means  of 
ventilation.  Special  arrangements  for  running  water 
are  to  be  made. 

Work  rooms  in  manual  training  schools  and  shop- 
rooms  in  general  are  to  be  well  lighted  by  lateral  and, 
if  possible,  vertical  light,  and  must  be  especially 
adapted  to  the  kind  of  study.  As  for  laboratories, 
plenty  of  space  is  a  requisite. 

For  riding  schools,  etc.,  the  ring  or  riding  hall  is 
well  made  rectangular.  The  best  average  propor- 
tion is  width  equal  to  about  one-third  of  length.  Light 
must  be  diffused,  so  that  the  horses  will  have  no 
shadows  at  which  to  shy.  No  projections  in  the  hall 
below  seven  feet  eight  inches.  The  lower  portion  of 
the  walls  may  have  a  batter,  preventing  the  legs 
of  equestrians  from  being  scraped  or  crushed  by 
unruly  horses.  The  entrance  is  best  on  the  small  side 
of  the  rectangle,  to  give  a  rider  time  to  control  his 
horse  after  entering  the  ring.  A  riding  hall  must  be 
verj^  well  ventilated.  Horses  are  mounted  outside 
the  ring. 

Buildings  of  General  Public  Instruction. 
Museums,  Picture  Galleries,  Libraries,  etc. 
There  are  two  usual  methods  for  connecting  the 
exposition  rooms  of  museums  or  picture  galleries; 

18 


258 


PRACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 


viz:  that  of  the  single  circulation  and  that  of  the 
double  circulation  (Fig.  101).  The  former  is  better 
when  objects  are  exposed  only  around  the  walls  of 
the  room;    the  latter,  when  objects  are  also  in  the 


i  fl   i 


Fig.  101. 

middle  of  the  room.  In  general,  arrange  the  suite  of 
rooms  so  that  a  visitor  may  see  the  whole  collection 
without  retracing  his  steps  or  having  recourse  to  a 
guide  book. 

Interior  decorations  of  an  exposition  room  should 
be  absolutely  simple;  nothing  must  detract  from 
the  objects  on  view.  The  Pitti  Palace  of  Florence 
and  the  Louvre  were  not  made  for  picture  galleries ; 
thus,  despite  the  art  displayed,  are  not  successful  as 
such.  A  room  destined  for  the  reception  of  certain 
very  modem  exhibitions  might  admit  of  noticeable 
decoration;  so  that  the  visitor  could  be  sure  of 
something  agreeable  on  which  to  rest  his  eyes.  In 
lecturing  on  the  '' Theory  of  Architecture"  at  the 
Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Mr.  Guadet  advised  the  stu- 
dents not  to  attempt  to  decorate  a  room  in  the  style 
of  the  exhibit  it  is  to  contain.  Such  imitations  are 
always  sure  to  result  disastrously,  for  the  reproduc- 
tion will  conflict  with  the  original ;  and  were  not  this 
the  case,  the  original  would  have  no  background  to 
set  it  off.    In  the  judgment  of  the  new  Cairo  museum, 


THEATEBS    AND    OPERA    HOUSES. 


259 


designs  which  affected  Egyptian  decorations  were, 
a  priori,  discarded. 

In  museums  and  picture  galleries  excessive  height 
is  bad.  The  height  should  be  approximately  equal 
to  the  width.  The  interior  dimensions  of  the  ' '  Salon 
Carre"  of  the  Louvre  are:  width,  15.75  m. ;  height, 
19.60  m. ;  width  of  skylight,  5.47  m.  Another  of  the 
rooms  has :  width,  17.45  m. ;  height,  15.50  m. ;  opening 
of  skylight,  8.23  m.  Both  of  these  halls  are  excel- 
lently adapted  to  their  use.  The  exterior  lights 
should  be  as  large  as  possible;  of  greater  area  than 
the  oi^enings  in  the  ceiling  of  the  hall. 

In  libraries  the  reading  room  must  be  well  lighted 
by  a  diffused  light— no  shadows  to  be  tolerated. 
Stack  rooms,  too,  need  thorough  lighting.  The  height 
of  stacks  is  divided  by  galleries  into  stories,  each 
about  seven  feet  six  inches  high. 
The  floors  of  these  galleries  are 
made  of  glass.  Fig.  102  shows  two 
arrangements,  the  first  having  an 
opening  between  galleries,  the 
second  openings  between  a  central 
gallery  and  the  books.  The  open  spaces  in  the  latter 
case  are  closed  with  a  wire  mesh,  to  prevent  books 
from  falling  to  the  bottom  of  the  stack  room. 


L; 


Fig.  102. 


Theaters  and  Opera  Houses. 

Such  buildings  are  always  to  be  divided  into  two 

distinct  parts,  for  the  public  and  the  actors.    Between 

these  should  be  a  heavy  wall,  that  a  fire  arising  amid 

the  scenery  may  not  endanger  the  public;  this  wall, 


260  PRACTICAL.    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 

too,  may  insure  the  saving  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
house. 

The  entrance  and  exit  become  our  first  study.  The 
carriage  approach  must  not  interfere  with  that  of 
arrivals  on  foot.  If  the  building  is  in  a  street  block, 
those  who  drive  will  alight  on  the  sidewalk,  and 
everybody  will  enter  in  the  same  way.  The  architect 
will  merely  have  to  arrange  a  marquise  over  the  side- 
walk. (Of  course,  the  carriages  must  not  drive  over 
the  sidewalk,  even  to  pass  under  the  building  to  an 
interior  porte  cochere;  such  an  arrangement  would 
block  the  sidewalk.)  But  if  the  building  is  isolated, 
with  streets  on  all  sides,  then,  perhaps,  the  best  solu- 
tion is  that  of  lateral  marquises  (sometimes  objected 
to,  because  not  monumental)  or  more  architectural 
porte  cocheres.  The  latter  are  to  be  so  arranged  that, 
at  the  same  time,  several  carriages  may  stand  under 
cover  and  receive  their  occupants,  and  any  one  of  the 
carriages  be  able  to  emerge  from  the  line  and  drive 
off,  although  the  first  ones  remain  in  place.  The 
scheme  of  driving  under  the  theater  has  been  tried, 
but  not  found  successful,  because  of  draught  and 
rumbling,  audible  in  the  auditorium.  A  waiting 
room  is  an  accessory  of  the  porte  cochere;  likewise, 
a  waiting  vestibule  for  the  attendants  and  footmen. 

In  entering  the  house  and  during  entre-actes,  the 
public  is  able  to  appreciate  the  effect  of  the  vestibules 
and  staircases  in  a  manner  not  possible  during  the 
hurry  and  crowding  of  exodus.  It  is  logical,  then, 
to  adopt  the  plan  of  the  Opera  House  of  Paris,  where 
the  public  arrives,  and  ascends  to  the  main  parts  of 


THEATERS  AND  OPERA  HOUSES.        261 

the  house  by  elaborate  vestibules  and  a  monumental 
staircase,  and  leaves  by  a  great  number  of  staircases, 
continuations  to  the  ground  floor  of  the  smaller  stair- 
cases used  from  the  main  part  of  the  house  (the  floor 
where  the  foyer  is)  to  the  upper  floors  of  the  second, 
third  and  fourth  galleries.  Following  this  theory  in 
detail,  we  should  make  all  doors  of  the  public  portion 
of  the  house  open  outward.  If  a  panic  occur,  the 
natural  sequence  to  an  alarm  of  fire,  this  precaution 
is  of  utmost  importance.  As  to  the  special  arrange- 
ments of  minor  staircases,  a  number  of  comparatively 
narrow  ones,  side  by  side,  are  better  than  a  single 
one  with  wide  steps.  People  like  to  use  the  hand- 
rail, and  in  a  crowd  those  coming  down  on  the  outside 
have  farther  to  go  around  the  turns  than  those  on 
the  inside,  while  those  on  the  inside  may  be  crushed 
together  and  forced  over  the  first  step  after  the  land- 
ing. There  should  be  no  winders  in  a  staircase  which 
a  crowd  of  people  is  to  use.  The  landings  on  the 
different  floors  must  be  quite  independent  of  the  halls 
and  passages,  in  order  to  allow  those  on  point  of  de- 
scending to  pause  without  obstructing  the  passage. 

The  foyer  is  naturally  a  place  for  the  artist  to  dis- 
play his  skill  in  decoration.  It  is  well  to  place  the 
foyer  at  about  the  height  of  the  first  balcony  or  be- 
tween the  levels  of  the  back  of  the  pit  and  the  balcony. 

As  to  the  auditorium  itself,  the  best  shape,  com- 
bining advantages  for  seeing  and  hearing,  is  that  of 
the  somewhat  elongated  horseshoe.  By  referring  to 
what  has  already  been  said  with  regard  to  lecture 
halls,  we  understand  why  the  deeper  hall  is  better 


262 


PRACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 


for  sound  than  the  half  circle.  The  depth  of  a  theater 
or  opera  house  auditorium  should  be  at  least  equal  to 
the  breadth  (Fig.  103,  A,  d^b). 

In  determining  the  height  of  the  successive  rows 
of  seats  we  must  make  one  addition  to  our  previous 
suggestions  respecting  more  semi-circular  halls. 
Since  theater  auditoriums  are  elongated,  and  actors 
often  at  the  back  of  the  stage,  far- 
ther removed  from  the  center  of 
the  circle  of  the  balconies,  a  spec- 
tator at  a'  (Fig.  103,  B)  looking  at 
o',  will  see  over  the  point  b',  in- 
stead of  over  &i.  a'bi  being  less 
than  ab'  and  the  height  of  points 
in  the  same  row  being  the  same, 
a'bi  or  ab,  which  has  a  like  inclina- 
tion, will  be  less  near  the  horizon- 
tal than  will  a'b'.  So,  while  a  spec- 
tator at  a  can  see  o',  those  at  a'  may 
not  be  able.  Therefore  the  height 
of  the  rows  must  be  calculated 
along  such  lines  as  a'b'.  We  may- 
feel  assured  that  if  conditions  on 
the  side  of  the  house  are  satisfac- 
tory those  in  the  center  will  be. 

Loges  with  high  sides  should  only  be  placed  in  the 
middle  of  the  house,  as  persons  in  the  back  of  a  box 
on  the  side  can  see  nothing.  In  Fig.  103,  A,  the 
shaded  portion  of  the  box  at  8  is  quite  useless,  as  far 
as  catching  a  glimpse  of  even  the  middle  of  the  back 
of  the  stage  is  concerned.    Never  make  supports  in 


THEATEKS    AND    OPEBA    HOUSES.  263 

the  audience  hall  of  a  theater.  Balconies  must  be 
supported  by  brackets  or  in  cantilever. 

As  to  the  shape  of  the  stage,  although  the  impres- 
sion from  the  house  is  one  of  depth,  this  is  really 
illusory.  The  stage  ought  to  be  very  wide,  at  least 
three  times  the  width  of  the  opening  at  the  curtain ; 
but  depth  is  of  less  consequence.  Indeed,  too  great 
depth  is  bad,  the  voice  being  lost  in  the  back,  while 
the  scenery,  which  might  act  as  a  sounding-board  or 
reflector,  is  not  near  enough  to  the  opening  of  the 
curtain  to  be  useful.  Effects  of  perspective  are  better 
obtained  by  painted  scenery. 

It  is  well,  if  possible,  to  place  such  a  room  as  the 
' '  foyer  de  dance, ' '  on  axis,  behind  the  stage,  arranged 
in  such  a  way  that  it  can  be  thrown  open  at  the  end 
and  used,  on  occasion,  to  increase  the  actual  depth. 
This  becomes  most  acceptable  in  ballet  scenes,  when 
the  front  of  the  stage  must  be  given  up  to  the  dancers. 

The  great  width  of  stage  is  made  necessary  by 
scenery  stored  there  ready  to  be  drawn  on  when  the 
acts  change.  There  must  be  height  enough  above 
and  below  the  opening  of  the  stage  to  raise  and  lower 
scenery  out  of  sight. 

Capacity  of  the  heating  apparatus  need  not,  com- 
paratively speaking,  be  very  great,  as  the  exterior 
passages  keep  the  auditorium  from  cooling  off.  The 
influx  of  warm  air  must  not  be  concentrated  in  one 
place.  Ventilation  can  never  be  too  great ;  the  stage 
is  especially  difficult  to  ventilate  well  without  sudden 
changes  of  temperature.  In  any  case,  there  should 
be  automatic  openers  connected  with  the  different 


264  PEACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 

skylights  above  the  stage,  so  that  all  will  open  con- 
jointly and  may  be  managed  from  a  central  point 
during  the  entre-actes. 

Lighting  of  the  house  should  be  diffused.  A 
chandelier  kept  high  is  admissible  and,  moreover, 
decorative.  Stage  lights  are  never  to  be  seen  by  the 
audience.  A  double  system  of  lights  should  exist,  so 
that  if  one  fails,  the  second  will  be  in  reserve.  Water 
is  carried  to  points  over  the  stage,  to  be  used  in  case 
of  fire. 

Adjuncts  of  the  stage  are  store  rooms,  dressing 
rooms  of  the  artists,  dancers,  etc.,  musicians'  rooms, 
the  "foyer  de  dance,"  green  room  and  library. 
Moreover,  there  should  be  a  group  of  offices,  belong- 
ing to  the  administration,  and  ample  provision  for 
machinery,  etc. 

Governmental  or  Administrative  Buildings. 
Architecture  of  such  buildings  should  be  dignified 
in  character,  typifying  the  power  of  the  nation  or 
state  whose  laws  or  decrees  are  therein  conceived  and 
carried  out.  In  America  our  State  Capitols  have 
already  struck  the  note  of  an  appropriate  style,  strong 
in  its  classical  derivation  and  well  poised,  although 
possessed  of  little  originality.  Our  court  houses 
and  prisons  are  somewhat  less  successful.  American 
architects,  striving  after  the  new,  have  often  turned 
either  to  the  old  or  to  the  curious ;  unwilling  to  use 
a  Classical  Eenaissance,  they  have  taken  to  the  Early 
Renaissance  or  to  the  grotesque.  To  be  sure,  the 
most  attractive  and  beautiful  specimens  of  the  Rat- 


ADMINISTRATIVE    BUILDINGS.  265 

haus  and  Hotel  de  Ville  are  to  be  found  in  old  Ger- 
many and  old  France;  and  as  long  as  a  Rathaus  or 
Hotel  de  Ville  is  desired,  perhaps  we  can  do  no  better 
than  copy  or,  to  use  a  less  harsh  word,  draw  inspira- 
tion therefrom.  But  in  America  we  have  a  civiliza- 
tion differing  materially  from  that  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  it  takes  a  real  genius  to  adapt,  without 
making  an  unfortunate  ''pastiche,"  the  architecture 
of  another  land  and  time  to  our  own.  The  difficulty 
of  using  an  old  style  in  governmental  work  is  shown 
even  more  when  the  especial  building  has  no  counter- 
part in  an  earlier  epoch.  Thus  prisons  of  to-day, 
built  to  resemble  Egj^ptian  temples  or  mediaeval  bat- 
tlemented  fortresses,  never  look  as  if  for  our  work-a- 
day  world. 

The  requirements  of  a  State  Capitol  are  of  two 
groups :  comprising  rooms  frequented  by  the  public, 
and  those  not  open  to  them.  Of  the  latter  the  large 
chambers  of  the  House  and  Senate  may  allow  of  some 
suggestions.      The   question    of   acoustics    must   be 

studied  in  such  a  way  as  to  allow  of  members  speak- 
ing in  any  part  of  the  hall  and  being  heard  through- 
out. A  semi-circular  hall  of  100  feet  diameter  is  a 
good  maximum ;  a  larger  hall  is  tiresome  to  the  voice. 
Light  in  the  back  of  galleries  for  the  public  is  un- 
necessary and  occasions  difficulty  in  the  exercise  of 
supervision  over  those  admitted.  The  heating  should 
come  from  several  points,  and  light  must  also  be  dif- 
fused. An  artificial  lighting,  tried  in  such  halls,  was 
the  arrangement  of  lights  above  a  ground  glass  sky- 
light ;  this  proved  expensive. 


266  PEACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 

Court  rooms  are  best  planned  with  unilateral  light- 
ing; skylights  cast  unnatural  shadows  and  are  not 
agreeable.  Sills  of  windows  should  be  six  feet  from 
the  floor,  that  no  one  can  look  out.  Of  course,  no 
lateral  passages  or  galleries  may  cut  the  light  from 
the  windows  of  the  court  room.  Accused  and  wit- 
nesses should  be  placed  with  faces  to  the  light;  the 
jury  may  be  against  the  light.  The  judge  must  not 
face  the  light  nor  have  light  behind  him,  as  he  would 
be  thereby  prevented  from  seeing  and  being  seen. 
The  judge  would  naturally  be  in  the  axis  of  the  court 
room,  and  at  the  end  opposite  the  entrance.  Vaulting 
in  a  court  room  would  resound  too  much. 

Prisons  are  to  be  divided  into  two  distinct  parts: 
for  the  service  and  for  the  prisoners.  Especially  to 
be  guarded  against  are  places  available  for  hiding, 
gathering  for  escape  or  the  preparation  of  outbreaks. 
Prisoners  are  not  to  mingle,  except  in  accordance  with 
special  rules.  From  one  work  room  they  should  not 
be  able  to  see  or  communicate  with  prisoners  in  an- 
other, and  it  is  particularly  important  that  they  be 
not  able  to  see  outside  the  prison.  All  cells  are  to 
be  isolated,  that  tapping  on  the  wall  of  one  cannot  be 
heard  in  the  next,  to  have  no  projections ;  vaulting  is 
good.  The  entrance  to  a  prison  is  best  made  with  a 
court  between  a  first  and  second  set  of  doors.  This 
allows  carriages  to  drive  into  an  inner  court  without 
there  ever  being  an  open  communication  between  it 
and  the  exterior. 


commercial  buildings.  267 

Commercial  Buildings. 

Our  commercial  buildings  are  so  peculiar  in  their 
requirements  that  it  is  especially  difficult  to  give  any 
general  suggestions.  A  new  program  must  be  made 
out  for  each  case.  No  practical  consideration  should 
be  disregarded  or  slighted;  it  is  by  giving  to  each 
its  full  value  that  character  will  be  attained. 

In  office  buildings,  built  as  an  investment  of  money, 
no  waste  space  is  to  be  tolerated.  The  best  method 
to  follow  in  composing  the  exterior  is  (see  ''Scale," 
on  page  68)  to  include  several  stories  in  base  courses 
and  several  in  the  cornice.  Great  arches  are  usually 
not  acceptable,  as  they  make  bad  windows  for  the 
interior.  The  entrance,  elevators  and  corridors  de- 
mand most  careful  study. 

Large  stores,  where  the  whole  building  is  devoted 
to  one  business,  must  be  very  light;  no  supei*fluous 
stone  piers  or  imitation  piers  to  limit  the  show  win- 
dows. It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  vapor  will  con- 
dense on  the  interior  of  the  panes  of  closed,  unventil- 
ated  and  heated  show  windows. 

Factories  must  also  have  the  maximum  of  light. 
All  of  these  buildings  must  be  fireproof. 

Eailroad  stations  are  to  be  divided  into  two  groups : 
terminal  and  non-terminal,  or  way-stations.  In  such 
buildings  the  question  of  the  circulation  of  the  public 
becomes  most  important.  In  Europe  an  arrangement 
exists  (as  in  the  Gare  St.  Lazare  of  Paris)  where  the 
public  is  only  pennitted  free  entrance  to  a  long  hall, 
a  (Fig.  104,  A),  placed  perpendicularly  to  the  lines, 
and  separated  therefrom,  or  rather,  from  a  second 


268 


PKACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 


open  space,  h,  which  connects  the  ends  of  the  lines 
by  waiting  rooms,  w.  In  America  a  more  practical 
system  unites  these  two  open  spaces,  the  waiting 
rooms  being  elsewhere  {B,  Fig.  104) ;  such  is  the  case 
in  the  Pennsylvania  Eailroad  station  in  Philadelphia, 
and  also  in  the  new  Southern  Central  station  in  Bos- 
ton.   In  large  terminal  stations  the  suburban  lines 


Fig.  104. 

are  sometimes  separated  from  the  main  lines ;  a  gen- 
eral division  may  also  be  made  between  arriving  and 
departing  lines.  A  free  choice  between  these  systems 
usually  does  not  rest  with  the  architect.  He  must  aim 
to  obviate  the  blocking  of  traffic  and  to  enable  the 
traveller  to  find  his  way  without  asking  questions. 
The  latter,  upon  finding  himself  in  the  wrong  place, 
should  be  able,  in  minimum  time,  to  rectify  his  mis- 
take. In  general,  the  whole  plan  should  be  an  open 
one. 

Ecclesiastical.  Buildings. 

A  last  chapter  in  our  study  of  diiferent  buildings 
is  the  interesting  one  pertaining  to  ecclesiastical  archi- 
tecture. There  are  two  extremes  toward  which  such 
buildings  tend:  the  mystical  and  the  scientific.  Of 
the  former  the  Eoman  Catholic  church  is  a  type;  of 


ECCLESIASTICAL    BUILDINGS.  269 

the  latter,  the  ethical  culture  cults.  The  more  wor- 
ship tends  to  the  mystical,  the  more  do  forms, 
pagents,  processions,  impressive  ceremonies,  music 
and  all  that  appeals  to  the  senses,  and  through  them 
to  the  imagination,  become  important;  as  the  cult 
tends  to  the  scientific,  the  more  are  these,  are  any 
suggestion  of  aught  greater  than  force  and  matter 
excluded. 

Character  must  foreshadow  these  tendencies.  The 
range  is  from  the  cathedral  of  Chartres  or  Notre 
Dame  de  Paris  to  the  ethical  lecture  hall. 

None  of  our  Protestant  forms  of  worship  have  the 
fulness  of  the  old  Eoman  Catholic  service.  In  all 
modem  services  there  is  need  of  an  auditorium.  The 
Episcopal  service  is  the  most  ornate  of  these.  While 
it  is  the  direct  descendant  of  the  English  and  earlier 
Roman  Catholic  service,  it  usually  shows  no  need  for 
processions.  In  the  planning  of  its  churches  it  does 
away  with  the  requisite  of  side  aisles  and  even 
chapels,  substituting  that  the  greatest  number  of 
worshipers  must  hear  and  follow  the  priest,  both  in 
sermon  and  service.  It  is  true  that  the  Church  of 
England  holds  its  services  in  old  cathedrals ;  but  this 
is  in  spite  of  their  want  of  adaptation,  evidenced  by 
the  greater  part  of  the  English  churches  being  closed 
off  by  choir  screens,  etc. 

The  practical  requirements  are  changed  in  the  most 
conservative  of  our  forms  of  modern  worship.  Is  the 
spirit  changed  also? 

Certainly,  some  divisions  of  the  Church  of  England 
are  not  far  removed  from  the  old  feeling  at  Rome,  but 


270  PKACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS    IN    PLANNING. 

the  great  body  is  essentially  modem.  In  our  cliurclies 
it  is  a  mistake  to  copy  old  cathedrals  in  plan— present 
needs  are  changed ;  a  fault  to  imitate  them  in  feeling 
—modem  spirit  has  forgotten  the  old. 

The  architect  who  has  a  place  of  worship  to  build 
must  imbue  himself  with  the  thought  and  feeling  of 
the  worshipers.  He  must  be  practical  when  a  lecture 
hall  is  needed— the  speaker  in  the  axis,  with  seats 
circling  around,  no  columns  to  obstruct  the  view  (this 
is  true  in  all  modem  churches),  good  acoustics,  good 
ventilation,  good  light.  In  spirit  he  must  be  a  pan- 
theist when  asked  for  a  temple,  a  ritualist  when  asked 
for  a  cathedral. 

He  will  find  no  worshipers  in  the  old  mediaeval  sense 
—culture  is  come  and  ''the  people"  are  departed. 
His  consolation  is  in  the  thought  that  if  the  gentle 
twilight  of  the  past  is  gone,  at  least  day,  not  night,  is 
taking  its  place. 


INDEX  OF  PROPER  NAMES. 


American  art,  33,  111,  166,  171, 
189,  201,  219,  228,  230,  264,  265. 

Arabian  art,  101,  111,  165,  167, 
177,  187. 

Arras,  186. 

Aurora,  see  '  Guido  Reni.' 

Bach,  14. 

Baudiy,  180. 

Beauvais,  187. 

Beethoven,   14. 

Bergamo,    sepulchral    chapel,    34. 

Besnard,  180. 

Bigot,   197,  225. 

Blanc,  Charles,   184. 

Blois,   12,   110,   115. 

Boston   Public  Library,    168,   180, 

181. 
Botticelli,  13,  75,   179. 
Boucher,  180,  187. 
Boulle,  112,  169. 
Brown,  G.  Baldwin,  22,  23,  29,  41, 

71. 
Burne  Jones,  181. 
Byzantine,  111,  168,  179. 

Certosa  di  Pavia,  34,  68, 
Chambord,  110. 
Chaminade,  24. 
Chartres,  172,  269. 
Chateau     de     Villeroy,     chimney- 
piece,  63,  64. 
Chaussemiche,  194,  198,  199,  226. 
Ch^ret,  182. 

Chinese  art,  119,  167,  169. 
Chopin,  13. 
Cloisonne,  168. 
Cologne  Cathedral,  68. 
Colonial  architecture,  11,  60. 
Consrressional  Library.  181. 
Corot,  15.  17,  30.  31,"  37. 
Cour  de  Cassassion,  165. 

Dav.  Lewis  F.,  173. 
Deelane.  39.  82.  102,  197,  199. 
De  la  Roche,  180. 
Delboeuf,    141,   142. 


Delft,   167. 
Doge's  Palace,  165. 
Duomo,  Florence,  172. 
Duquesne,  197. 
Durm,  Dr.  Josef,  126. 

Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  17,  37. 
Egj'ptian  art,  21,  99. 
Eliot,  George,  24. 
Empire,  111. 

English     architecture,     160,     167, 
171,  174,  181. 

Fechner,  45. 

Flemish  art,  167,  182,  186. 
Florentine  work,  162. 
Fontainbleau,   165. 

Gare,  St.  Lazare,  Paris,  267. 

German  architecture,  167,  265. 

Giotto,  36,  179. 

Gobelins,  187. 

Gothic,   9,    10,   35,    110,    154,    155, 

215. 
Goujon,  Jean,  14,  36. 
Gounod.  14. 
Grand  Prix.  82,  84. 
Grasset,    182. 
Greek  art,  99,  102,   111,  119,  164, 

167. 
Greek    artistic   sense,    35,    40,    41, 

76.  121,  125. 
Gniebv   faience.    167. 
Guadet.  J.,  258. 
Guido  Reni.  179. 
Guilbert,  37. 

Havard.   Henri,    154. 

Helmholtz.  123,  124,  125,  138,  142, 

144.  145.  149. 
Holbein.  73. 

Hotel  de  Ville,  Paris,  180. 
Hotel  Soubise,  Paris,  165. 

Tnirres.    180. 
Tnvalides   (dome),  176. 
Israels,  Josef,  28,  37. 


271 


272 


INDEX. 


Japanese  art,  99,  164,  167,  169. 
Josselyn,  110. 

Kipling,  19. 
Kundt,  141,  142. 

La  Farge,  John,  171,  174,  175. 

Laocoon,  65. 

Larsson,  Carl,  180. 

Laurens,  Jean  Paul,  3. 

Le  Brun,  Charles,  187. 

Lehman,  4,  29,  45,  46. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  179. 

Louis  XIV.,  99,  110,  112,  114,  156, 

163    187 
Louis' XV.',  92,  99,   101,   156,   163, 

187    193 
Louis'xVI.,  Ill,  156,  163,  180. 
Louvre,  14,  64,  114,  163,  165,  168, 

179,  258,  259. 
Lucca  della  Robbia,  167. 

Madeleine   (the),  25. 

Massaccio,  14. 

Mayeux,  Henri,  15,  31,  49,  55,  65, 

85,   98,   99,    101,    102,    105,    107, 

175,  176,  182,  185. 
Merson,  Luc  Olivier,  180. 
Michael  Angelo,  12,  23,  36,  179. 
Milan  Cathedral,  11,  35,  68. 
Millet,  Jean  Frangois,  28. 
Monreale,  168. 
Montmorency,   172. 
Moore,  215. 
Moorish  art,  101,  165. 
Mortlake,  187. 
Miiller-Lyer  illusions,  141. 
Miintz,  Eugfene,  183,  185. 

Niobe  group,  65. 
Notre  Dame,  172,  269. 

Opera  House  (Paris),  54,  110,  165, 

168,  195,  260. 
Oppel,  141,  142. 
Oudry,  179. 

Palazzo  Spada,  165. 

Palladian  motive,  60,  217,  218. 

Parthenon,  125. 

Pascal.  84,  221. 

Pennell,  Joseph,  181,  182. 

Penrose,  126. 

Persian  art.  99,  108,  167,  187. 

Pemarino.  14. 

Phidias,  36. 


Pillet,  220. 

Pitti  Palace,  165,  258. 

Pointelin,   151. 

Pompeian,  100,  111,  165,  168,  179. 

Puvis  de  Chavannes,  180. 

Raflfaelle,  3,  14,  74,  75,  179,  185. 
Reims,  172,  173. 

Renaissance,  10,  33,  100,  119,  153, 
171,  173,  179,  185,  264. 
French,    102,    110,    111,    113, 

114,  156,  165,  182,  265. 
Italian,    108,    111,    113,    114. 
156,  165,  168,  186. 
Robinson,  John,  76. 
Roman  art,  167,  226. 
Rosetti,   181. 

Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques,  3. 
Ruskin,  7,  8,  12,  14,  16,  18,  20,  33, 
34,  35,  36,  166. 

Sainte  Chapelle,   172. 
Sargent,  John,   181. 
Sgraffito,  108. 
Shakespeare,  14,  229. 
Sorbonne,  the,  180,  244,  248. 
Spanish  architecture,   169,  182. 
Spencer,  Herbert,  29. 
St.  Denis,   173. 
Steinlen,   182. 
St.  Etienne  du  Mont,  172. 
St.  Mark    (Venice),   168. 
St.  Peter    (Rome),  54. 
St.  Roch,  99. 

Tiffany,  Louis,  175,  177. 
Tintoretto,   179. 
Titchener,  121,  140,  141. 
Titian,  82. 

Tolstoi,  26,  27,  28,   68. 
Tournaire,  197,  199,  226. 
Trocadero   (Paris),  250. 
Turner,  18,  19. 

Vatican,  147. 
Veronese,  Paolo,  179. 
Versailles,   11,   165. 
Villa  Medici,  218. 
Viollet  le  Due,  172,  215. 

Webster,  41. 
Wells,  35. 

Westminster  Abbey,  159. 
Whistler,  73,  151. 
Wundt,  121,  140. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Acoustics,  246-253,  263,  265,  270. 
.Esthetic    sequence,   principles    of, 

see  '  sequence.* 
Air,  201. 
Alabaster,  177. 

Analysis     of     composition.       See 
'  composition.' 
of  program,   202-210. 
Angles,  87,  88,  89,  91,  122-124. 
Arch,   59,  60,   104,   115,   136,   137, 

160,  214. 
Architecture  in  painting,  12,  100, 
179. 
in  stained  glass,  100,  171. 
in  tapestry,  184. 
Arrangements  of  composition.     See 

'  composition.' 
Art,  work  of,  1-6,  26. 

laws  of  character  of,  7-39. 
Artist,   6,   13,   14,   15,   17,   19,  25, 

28,  36,  37,  39,  70,  149,  155,  229. 
Ateliers,  193,  256. 
Auditorium,    192,    196,   202,    242- 

254,  261,  262,  269. 
Axes  of  symmetry,  73-84,  116,  194, 
195,  200,  202,  211,  221,  227. 

Backgrounds,  107-113,  149. 

Balance,  43,  47,  73,  76,  92,  202. 

Barracks,  193,  237. 

Bathrooms,  231,  234,  240. 

Bays,  58,  59,  60,  61,  62,  137,  145, 
146,  217,  226,  234,  235,  237,  238, 
239,  242,  246,  253,  266,  267. 

Beauty,  4,  40. 

Bed  rooms,  233,  234. 

Bizarre,  14. 

Borrow,  14,  16,  21. 

Brass,  163,  164,  252. 

Brick,  166,  216. 

Bronze,  63,  163,  164. 

Carefulness,  32-39. 
Carpets,  98,  186.  187. 
Ceilings,  178,  179,  225,  2C5. 

19 


Character,   13-24,  28,  37,   48,  49, 

190,  227,  229,  269. 
Circulation,    199,    200,    226,    227, 

231,  258,  267. 
Class  rooms,  198,  242. 
Clearness,  28-31. 
Climax,  42,  43,  44,  46,  47,  72-84, 

86,  193,  194,  224. 
Color,  4,  43,  50,  51,  63,  149-152. 
Columns,  218,  219,  221. 
Commercial  art,  67. 
Communities,  237,  238. 
Composition,  1,  15,  41,  47,  70,  71, 
189. 
analysis  of  a,  70. 
arrangement  of,  72-84. 
definition  of,  41. 
laws  of,  42-43. 
technical  principles  of,  40-69. 
Concentric  circles,  127-135. 
Construction,  10,  58,  200,  213,  217, 
221. 
false,  9. 
fireproof,    267. 
Contrast,    31,    41,    44-47,    83,    88, 
103-105,  109,  120,  142-146,  152, 
224. 
Conventionalization,    63,    65,    96- 

101. 
Copper,  163,  164. 
Cost,  189,  206. 

Court,  193,  196,  207,  236,  238,  242. 
Curves,  88,  89,  90,  106,  122,  126- 
136. 

Deceit,  9,  11,  12. 

Decoration,  35,  61-68,  74,  85,  119, 

158-187,  246,  258,  261. 
Department  store,  192,  267. 
Details,  20,  21,  26,  27,  28,  30,  31, 

32,  38,  63,  65,  69,  108. 
Dining  rooms,  232,  238,  242. 
Divisions,  138. 
Domes,  93,  117,  147,  215,  216,  249, 

250,  251,  252. 


273 


274 


INDEX. 


Domestic  architecture,  228. 
Dormitories,  237,  238. 
Drawing,  39,  181. 

Ecclesiastical     architecture,    268- 

270. 
Elevation,  114,  148. 

lateral,  76,  83,  214,  217,  226. 
Ensemble,  29,  68,  81. 
Entablatures,  61,  66-68,  219. 
Entrances,  193,  196,  226,  245,  260, 

267. 
Exhibition  work,  54,  222. 
Exposition  rooms,  196,  258,  259. 

False     construction.        See     'con- 
struction.' 
Faults,  15,  16,  25,  34,  54,  181,  270. 
Form,  47,  85,  101. 
Frankness,  24-25,  97. 
Fresco,  177,  179,  180. 
Furniture,  159,  169,  186,  223,  225. 

Glass,  169,  255,  256. 

painting  on.     See  'painting.' 
stained.     See  '  stained  glass.' 

Government  buildings,  264-266. 

Ground  formation,  191. 

Grouping  of  *  services,'   198,   214, 
230. 

Harmony,  20,  42,  43,  48,  50,  51,  89. 
Heating,  240,  253,  263,  265. 
Hospitals,  238,   242. 

Ideal,  20,  23. 

Imitation,  8,  9,  166,  258. 

Impost  mouldings,  104,  136. 

Impressionist,  30. 

Indecision,  25,  86,  87. 

Indication,  34,  39,   144,   145,   193, 

209,  211-227. 
Insane  asylums,  241. 
Inscription,  24,  28. 
Intercolumniation,   9,    61,    62,   63, 

77. 
Iron,  162,  216,  252. 

Kitchens,  230,  232,  242. 

Laboratories,  198,  254. 

Laws.     See    '  art,'     '  composition,' 

unity  of  '  scale.' 
Lead,  164. 
Leather  work,  102. 
Lecture  halls,  242,  244,  253. 


Library,  195,  231,  259. 

Lighting,  198,  201,  231,  233,  235, 

240,  242,  246,  254,  255,  259,  264, 

265,  267,  270. 
Line,  47,  101,  122,  124. 
Love  of  work.     See  '  work.' 

Massing  of  elements,  71,  87,  145, 

198,  201,  227. 
Monument,  21,  24,  28. 
Monumental,  22,  23,  24,  54,  65. 
Mosaic,    104,    105,    168,   211,   222- 

227. 
Motives,  continuity  of,  102-107. 
parallel  motives,  73,  74,  80. 
sub-motives,  43-46,  66,  69,  72- 
84,  221. 
Mouldings,  86,  88,  90,  91,  119,  161. 
Mural  painting.     See  *  painting.' 
Museums,  255,  257-259. 

Nature,  4,   5,  32,   39,  50,  54,   55, 

69,  71,  96,  97,  106. 
Niche,  136. 

Obliques,   115,  153. 
Office  buildings,  10,  68,  192,  267. 
Opera  house,  192,  195,  259-264. 
Optical  effects,  120-153,  224. 
Opus  insertum,  226. 
Orientation,   230,   235,   239. 
Ornament,   9,    12,   33,   34,   35,   36, 
38,  102,  116. 

Papier  mach6,  165. 
Painting,  73,  148-152. 

architecture    in.     See    *  archi- 
tecture.' 

on  glass,  171,  173,  175. 

mural,  98,   177-181. 

on  surfaces,  9. 
Parallel  motives.     See  '  motives.' 
Party  walls,  199. 
Pediment,  153. 
Pen  and  ink,  181. 
Pensonality,  13,  14,  16,  48,  70,  156. 
Perspective,  76,  98,  136.  147,  148, 

168,  179,  186,  201,  263. 
Plan,  81,  82,  83,  84,  188-227. 
Plumbing,  232,  234. 
Poche,   211-219,   222. 
Portraits,  73,  75,  149. 
Poster,  181,  182. 
Principles    of    sesthetic    sequence. 

See  '  sequence.' 
Prisons,  266. 


INDEX. 


275 


Program,  21,  188,  222,  228. 

analysis   of.     See   '  analysis.' 
Proportion,  40,  41,  52,  86,  138-142, 
146,  224. 

Railway  stations,  83,  84,  197,  267, 

268. 
Reasoning,  37,  188. 
Reception    rooms,    193,    225,    230, 

231. 
Reductions,  65. 
Rendu,  31,  144,  145,  150,  151,  222- 

227. 
Repetition,   44,   47,   90,    110,    142, 

196,  198,  226. 
Requirements  of  scale.    See  *  scale.' 
Riding  schools,  203-210,  257. 
Rules  for  scale.     See  '  Scale.' 
Rustications,  58. 

Scale,  21,  23,  52-69,  216,  221,  267. 

laws  of  unity  of,  52. 

requirements  of,  55. 

rules  for,  69. 
Schools,  193,  196,  242. 
Sculpture,  44,  65,  68,  73. 
Sequence,    principles    of    aesthetic, 

45,  46. 
Silhouettes,  44,  86,  87,  88,  89,  115, 

148,  190,  211,  213,  214. 
Simplicity,  26-32. 
Sincerity,  8,  15. 
Spirals,  115,  138. 
Stables,  234-237. 
Stability,  92,  93,   106,  107. 
Stained  glass,  98,  100,  169-177. 
Staircases,  195,  196,  215,  223,  231, 
234,  237,  238,  240,  245,  260. 

dancing  of  stairs,  219-221. 
State  capitol,  195,  264,  265. 


Stone,  33,  152,  166,  216,  252. 
Stucco,  164,  165. 
Study,  38,  181,  210. 
Style,  16,  21,  38,  48,  49,  154-157. 
Sub-motives.     See  'motives.' 
Symmetrical  compositions,  35,  93, 
194,  195,  196,  207. 

Tapestry,  63,  98,  183-187. 

architecture    in.     See    *  archi- 
tecture.' 

Taste,  4,  156,  157. 

Technical    principles    of    composi- 
tion.    See   '  composition.' 

Terracotta,  162,  166. 

Theatres,  259-264,  also  see  '  opera 
house.' 

Ties,  77,  80,  81,  82,  102-105. 

Tiles,  146,  166,  233. 

Truth,  8-13,   189,   190. 

Tympanum,   65. 

Unity,  42,  43,  44,  48-69. 
of  scale.     See  '  scale.' 

Vaults,  74,  215,  216,  225,  240,  247, 

266. 
Ventilation,    235,    236,    237,    238, 

239,  240,  253,  254,  256,  263,  270. 
View,  191,  230. 

Wall  paper,  108,  148,  182,  183. 
Waste,  12,  33,  35. 
Water-closets,  231,  234,  240. 
Wood,  159,  161,  252. 
Work  of  art.     See  '  art.' 
love  of,  17-19,  33. 

Zinc,  163-164. 


A  DICTIONARY 

. .  OF . . 

ARCHITECTURE  and  BUILDING 

BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,    AND  DESCRIPTIVE 

By  Russell  Sturgis,  A.  M,^  Ph.  D. 

Fellow  of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects ,  and  many  Architects,  Painters, 
Engineers  and  other  Expert  Writers,  American  and  Foreign. 

In  three  Quarto  Volumes  Fully  Illustrated. 

Qoth,  $  J8.00  Per  Set.    Half  Morocco,  $30.00  Per  Set. 


"The  first  volume  of  the  new  '  Dictionary  of  Architecture  and  Building ' 
which  The  Macmillan  Company  have  had  in  preparation  for  many  months  has 
at  last  been  issued,  and,  as  far  as  can  be  judged  from  a  preliminary  inspection, 
ought  to  receive  a  cordial  welcome  from  the  many  architects,  painters,  engi- 
neers, and  others  who  will  often  have  occasion  to  consult  its  pages.  A  special 
feature  of  this  valuable  reference  book  is  the  exhaustive  treatment  accorded 
the  existing  architecture  of  the  separate  countries.  The  present  volume  con- 
tains lengthy  papers  on  Austria-Hungary,  Belgium,  and  England,  the  latter 
occupying  more  than  twenty-five  quarto  pages,  and  illustrated  with  numerous 
full-page  reproductions  of  famous  buildings.  Special  treatment  is  also  prom- 
ised for  the  countries  of  the  far  East.  ...  A  commendable  feature  is  the 
addition  to  the  vocabulary  of  names  of  important  buildings,  in  cases  where 
they  have  acquired  special  titles  in  addition  to  their  geographical  designation, 
such  as  Westminster  Abbey,  Bow  Church,  and  the  Pantheon,  and  the  like,  thus 
facilitating  ready  reference.  A  word  of  praise  should  be  added  for  the  illus- 
trations, which  are  generous  in  number  and  show  a  wise  discrimination  in 
selection." — New  York  Commercial  Advertiser. 

"  No  such  work  as  '  A  Dictionary  of  Architecture  and  Building  '  exists  in 
English,  and  no  man  is  more  competent  to  prepare  it  than  Russell  Sturgis. 
He  has  had  the  assistance  of  many  expert  writers  both  American  and  foreign. 
Thus  under  the  heading  '  Architect,'  besides  Mr.  Sturgis's  own  general  article, 
Alexandre  Sandier,  director  of  the  works  of  art  at  the  National  Manufactory 
of  Sevres,  contributes  an  essay  on  '  The  Architect  in  France,'  and  John  Saf- 
ford  Fiske,  a  specialist  in  Italian  art,  contributes  one  on  '  The  Architect  in 
Italy.'  It  is  impossible  to  give  the  long  list  of  contributors.  It  includes  some 
of  the  most  eminent  practitioners  and  professors  of  architecture  in  the  country, 
besides  scientists.  .  .  .  No  more  comprehensive  book  of  its  kind  was  ever 
planned.  It  takes  in  a  biography  of  Domenicheno  and  an  account  of  Italian 
communal  dwellings ;  several  pages  treat  of  electrical  appliances,  bells,  lights, 
wiring,  elevators,  etc.  A  tabulated  list  of  the  principal  churches  of  the  world 
gives  Driefly  their  peculiarities,  style,  and  date, — or  dates,  for  they  are  equalljr 
the  product  of  more  than  one  century  and  more  than  one  method  of  archi- 
tecture. You  can  find  corbel  and  boss  and  emplecton  and  epi,  and  any  other 
word  needing  explanation.  You  can  read  an  essay  on  columns  in  general, 
and  you  can  look  up  particular  columns,  like  Pompey's  Column  or  the  Colonne 
Vendome.  Every  term  that  requires  it  has  a  number  of  cross-references,  and 
every  long  article  is  accompanied  by  a  bibliography  in  which  more  detailed 
information  may  be  obtained.  Of  necessity  the  work  is  fully  iUustrated. 
There  are  certainly  as  many  pictures  as  pages,  and  thirty-six  of  them  are  full- 
page  representations  of  typical  buildings.  Only  the  first  volume  as  yet  has 
appaared  of  the  three  into  which  the  work  is  divided.  There  is  nothing  but 
praise,  and  high  praise,  for  this  useful  and  valuable  '  dictionary  '  or  ency- 
clopaedia."—Chicago  Evening  Post. 

The  Macmillan  Co.,  66  Fifth  Ave,  New  York 


Development  and  Character 

. .  OF  . . 

Gothic  Architecture 

By  Charles  Herbert  Moore 

Wtth  ten  plates  in  photogra'bure  and  more  than  tiuo  hundred 
illustrations  in  the  text 
Second  Edition  Rewritten  and  Enlarged.    Cloth,  8vo,  $4.50  net. 


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clear  in  statement  and  so  interesting  in  the  treatment  of  its  great  subject  is 
well  suited  not  only  to  increase  the  general  knowledge  of  Gothic  architecture, 
but  to  become  a  text-book  for  special  students." 

—American  Architect  and  Building  News. 

"  It  is  without  question  the  most  noteworthy  work  upon  architecture  yet 
written  in  America  as  well  as  by  one  of  the  foremost  contributors  to  the  litera- 
ture of  the  subject  which  has  appeared  in  any  country.  .  .  . 

Mr.  Moore's  book  is  an  honor  to  American  scholarship  and  investigation, 
and  deserves  the  widest  circulation  among  readers  who  possess  any  interest  in 
what  he  succeeds  in  making  a  most  interesting  subject." 

—Boston  Daily  Advertiser. 


EUROPEAN  ARCHITECTURE 

A  HISTORICAL  STUDY 
By  Russell  Sturgis,  A*  M.,  Ph.D, 

Fellow  of  the  American  Institute  of  Architects,  Editor  of  "  A  Dictionary  of 
Architecture.^' 

Cloth,  8vo.    Illustrated,  $4.00. 

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known  or  too  carefully  studied.  .  .  .  Nothing  Mr.  Sturgis  can  say  on  the 
subject  of  architecture  can  fail  to  be  interesting  and  instructive.  ...  It  is  not 
too  much  to  say  that  this  single  work  forms  the  best  introduction  to  the  seri- 
ous study  of  European  architecture  ever  published." 

— The  Architects'  and  Bttilders'  Keview. 

"  In  Mr.  Sturgis'  '  European  architecture '  rare  good  taste,  simple  truth, 
and  great  knowledge  combine  to  satisfy  eye  aud  mind." 


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A     000  951  808     5 


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